See the pages where the term classifying system is mentioned. Statistical Observation Errors

by appointment finished products enterprises are divided into producing means of production and producing consumer goods;

on the basis of technological commonality, an enterprise with continuous and discrete production processes is distinguished;

according to the size of the enterprise are divided into large, medium and small;

According to the specialization and scale of production of the same type of products, enterprises are divided into specialized, diversified and combined.

according to the types of production process, enterprises are divided into enterprises with a single type of production, serial, mass, experimental.

on the grounds of activity, industrial enterprises, trade, transport and others are distinguished.

according to the forms of ownership, private enterprises, collective, state, municipal and joint enterprises (enterprises with foreign investments) are distinguished.

According to the legal status (organizational and legal forms), enterprises can be divided into:

business partnerships and companies,

production cooperatives,

state and municipal unitary enterprises

Business partnerships.

Faith partnership- a partnership in which, along with the participants who carry out entrepreneurial activities on behalf of the partnership and are liable for the obligations of the partnership with their property, there are one or more participants - investors who bear the risk of losses associated with the activity.

This organizational and legal form of the enterprise is typical for more large enterprises due to the possibility of attracting significant financial resources through a virtually unlimited number of partners.

General partnership- whose members are engaged entrepreneurial activity on behalf of the partnership and are liable for the obligations of the concluded agreement.

Management of entrepreneurial activities of a general partnership is carried out by common consent all its members. Each a participant in a general partnership has one vote when deciding any issues at the general meeting. Participants of a full partnership jointly and severally bear subsidiary responsibility with their property for the obligations of the partnership. That is, in fact, this statement means unlimited liability of partners.

General partnerships are most common in agriculture and the service sector; usually they are small enterprises and their activities are quite easy to control.

Partnership benefits.

Partnerships are easy to organize, the conclusion of an agreement is very simple.

Disadvantages of partnership

There are difficulties in determining the measure of the impact of each on the profit or loss of the firm.

Society.

OOO- founded by one or more persons of the company, authorized capital which is divided into shares of certain constituent sizes by documents. LLC is not liable for its obligations and bears the risk of losses associated with the activities of the company within the limits of ownership. The authorized capital of the company with limited liability is made up of the value of the contributions of its participants. This organizational and legal form is common among small and medium-sized enterprises.

ODO- a company founded by one or more persons, the authorized capital of which is divided into shares of certain founding documents size, the participants bear subsidiary liability for its obligations with their property in the same amount for all to the value of their contributions. In case of bankruptcy

of one of the participants, his liability for the obligations of the company is distributed among the other participants in proportion to their contributions, unless a different procedure for the distribution of liability is provided

founding documents of the company. That is, in fact, an additional liability company is a hybrid of a general partnership and a limited liability company.

JSC- a company whose authorized capital is divided into a certain number of shares; members of a joint-stock company are not liable for obligations, but bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the company. Shareholders who have not fully paid for the shares shall be jointly and severally liable for the obligations of the joint stock company within the limits of the unpaid part of the value of their shares.

JSC– a company, participants can alienate their shares without the consent of other shareholders. Such a joint-stock company has the right to conduct an open subscription for shares issued by it and their free sale on the terms established by law and other legal acts. An open joint stock company is obliged to annually publish for general information the annual report, balance sheet, profit and loss account.

Company- shares are distributed only among the founders or other circle of persons. Not entitled to conduct an open subscription to the shares issued by him. Shareholders of a closed joint stock company have the pre-emptive right to acquire shares sold by other shareholders of this company.

founding document joint-stock company is its charter.

Authorized capital joint-stock company is made up of the nominal value of the shares of this joint-stock company, which were acquired by the shareholders.

supreme governing body joint-stock company is the general meeting of shareholders. The meeting of shareholders may appoint a board of directors with its chairman in the event that the total number of shareholders exceeds 50 people.

Volgodonsk Engineering and Technology Institute - branch of NRNU MEPhI

BRIEF COURSE OF LECTURES

in the discipline "The latest trends in the field of construction"

Semester

For part-time students

in the direction (specialty) "Construction"

Compiled by:

Yu.Yu. Medvedev

Volgodonsk 2013

Lecture 1. Introduction 3

Lecture 2 Wall materials 5

Lecture 3. Materials for partitions 15

Lecture 4 Thermal insulation materials 24

Lecture 5 Waterproofing materials 30

Lecture 6. Acoustic materials 34

Lecture 7. Fire retardant materials 36

Lecture 8. Paints and varnishes 39

Lecture 9. Dry building mixtures 41

Lecture 10. Roofing waterproofing materials 43

Lecture 11. Ceilings 45

References 52

Topic number 1. Introduction

Modern architecture is moving away from the use of precast concrete. There are new architectural solutions that require the use of new materials, a completely different design of traditional materials, modern technologies finishes and more advanced architectural forms.

Currently, the demand for small-piece wall materials is increasing: ceramic bricks, gas and foam blocks. Single-layer wall structures are being replaced by modern ones - multi-layer, with insulation based on mineral fibers or foamed polymers.

Short-lived roofing coverings (roofing material) were replaced by polymeric coverings of full factory readiness. Various gypsum-based materials are widely used: blocks for partitions and walls, plasterboard and gypsum-fiber sheets.

The range has expanded, and the quality of finishing materials used in construction has increased - all types ceramic tiles, floor and wall coverings.

Trends in the development of housing construction in our vast country, by definition, cannot be nationwide in nature - they are different in each region. These trends are based on climatic conditions, national customs and culture, on the geographical location of the region, its natural resources, transport links, population density, standard of living, etc. All this imposes additional requirements on building materials. Some of their properties may be preferable for one region, and in another they will adversely affect the living conditions of people.

Unfortunately, even today in the Russian Federation, few building materials are produced that are as ready for use as possible, in convenient packaging, with a full set of components. The outdated technology for the production of most building materials has led to the fact that high-quality imported goods practically ousted domestic products from the Russian market.

Russian market flooded with foreign goods, technology and equipment. Warehouses of building materials and shops are filled with various goods, mostly of imported origin. And many familiar and familiar materials have acquired new qualities, which expanded the scope of their application.

However, the possibility of having accurate and verified information about the quality of materials and sources of their production is not great. But a lot depends on the quality and consumer properties of materials in construction and repair. Without the technical characteristics of the materials, it is impossible to develop a project, draw up an estimate and prepare other documentation that will guarantee the correct organization of all work.

The problem is not only to find the optimal ratio of price and quality, but also to meet the stated terms of repair (construction), as well as to minimize costs. Properly drawn up documentation will not only give a clear idea of ​​the cost of repairs (construction), but will also provide an opportunity to adjust the estimate in order to reduce costs.

Often, the consumer is interested in obtaining detailed technology along with the new material, which guarantees an increase in the speed and improvement in the quality of work.

It is especially important to know the technical characteristics of structural materials, so that in the event of redevelopment, the structural and functional integrity of the house will not be violated. It is all the more important in our conditions, when buildings are constantly exposed to a variety of adverse factors: precipitation, wind, thermal and mechanical stress, ultraviolet radiation and various substances contained in the air.

Significantly increased requirements for environmental safety housing are forced to evaluate building materials and their impact on human health. Even their total harmfulness is now being assessed, especially with prolonged exposure. Comprehensive consideration of all factors led to the adjustment of standards and specifications for building materials.

Topic number 2. WALL MATERIALS

Walls are vertical barriers that separate rooms from external environment and from each other.

Walls are classified according to the following criteria

1. By appointment: outdoor (overground and underground floors), internal, fire-fighting (firewalls), retaining, fences (fences).

2. By flammability - fireproof, slow-burning and combustible.

In addition, the walls can be made using various other materials, such as glass blocks, double-glazed windows, glass panels, fiberglass, steel and aluminum sheets, corrugated and flat asbestos plywood, various plastics, etc.

3. According to the degree of durability - I - at least 100 years, II - at least 50 years and III - at least 20 years.

4. By the size of the elements - small-element and large-element ..

5. Depending on the perception of loads from the building, the walls can be bearing, self-supporting and non-bearing.

The walls of civil buildings should meet the following requirements:

- be strong and stable;

- have a durability corresponding to the class of the building;

- correspond to the degree of fire resistance of the building;

- be an energy-saving element of the building;

- have resistance to heat transfer in accordance with heat engineering standards, while ensuring the necessary temperature and humidity conditions in the premises;

- have sufficient soundproofing properties;

- have a design that meets modern methods erection of wall structures;

- types of walls should be economically justified based on the given architectural and artistic solution, meet the customer's capabilities;

- material consumption (consumption of materials) should be as minimal as possible, as this largely contributes to reducing labor costs for the construction of walls and general expenses for construction.

The optimal wall thickness should not be less than the limit determined by statistical and thermal calculations.

By type of material walls can be as follows: stone, wooden, combined (sandwich type).

New wall materials

Ceramic bricks, stones (blocks)

ceramic brick been used in construction for quite a long time. Its novelty lies in the fact that manufacturers change the appearance of the brick, its overall dimensions, color, performance, in order to meet the modern needs of the construction market.

Factories produce several types of facing bricks:

- glazed: with a vitreous colored layer formed during firing, has a characteristic luster;

- engobed: with a decorative layer of a specially selected decorative clay composition;

- two-layer: it has a uniformly fired layer of colored clay applied to the raw material (spoon and bond faces) with a thickness of about 3-5 mm.

In addition, there are numerous options for processing the surface of the brick (smooth, wavy, rough, "antique"). Seams in such masonry are made on ordinary and colored masonry mortars.
Along with the ordinary, an increasing number of brick factories produce shaped bricks: with a bevel, rounded, angular, oval.
This facilitates the work of bricklayers in the construction of brickwork with oval outlines, rounded corners, special solutions for window frames and cornices. At the same time, there is no need to “cut” ordinary facing bricks with electric saws.

Ceramic efficient brick in terms of its properties, it meets the new requirements of SNiP 11-3-79 for thermal protection of enclosing structures with a wall thickness of 64 cm (2.5 bricks).
Distinctive features effective ceramic bricks: the mass of each brick is not more than 2.5 kg, it allows you to lay walls of a homogeneous material without the use of insulation, 350-400 pieces are placed on a pallet.

Fig.3. Porous ceramic brick1 2NF GOST 530-95 (effective)

Brick how construction material not only causes a feeling of solidity, but also provides reliable sound insulation, fire protection and protection against external factors, and also allows you to realize any architectural idea.

wall stones from lightweight (cellular) concrete.

The main type of cellular concrete is autoclaved aerated concrete. Depending on the components of the raw mix for its production and the type of binder, cellular concretes are divided into:

- Aerated concrete: the main raw materials are Portland cement, ground quartz sand and lime. It is possible to add ground granulated metallurgical slag.

- Aerated silicate concrete: prepared on the basis of ground quartz sand and lime.

- Aerated shale ash concrete: the main mineral component is fine ash from the processing of combustible shale into fuel.

A highly porous cellular structure in concrete is formed as a result of the porosity of the molding mass by hydrogen gas released as a result of the chemical interaction of the blowing agent (aluminum powder with calcium hydroxide).

Many decades of production and operation of autoclaved aerated concrete products have shown that wall blocks made of this material are the lightest of all types of concrete, with strength sufficient for the construction of low-, medium-rise buildings (as load-bearing elements).
When laying load-bearing walls, reinforcement of orders is provided (after 3-5 rows of masonry). The material is milled, drilled, nailed, which allows cutting grooves in the masonry at the construction site and “embedding” reinforcement in them.

Fig.5. Foam concrete block Fig. 6. Gas silicate block

Specifications cementless aerated concrete blocks of autoclave synthesis:

Average density - 500-600 kg / m 3;

Ultimate compressive strength - 3.5 MPa;

Frost resistance - 35 cycles;

The thermal conductivity is 0.14-0.17 W/(m·°C).

Since this is a highly porous material, it "breathes" (since water vapor passes through it from the room to the outside), equilibrium humidity occurs in 0.5-1 year. From the facade, the aerated concrete wall should be covered with a moisture-proof and at the same time vapor-proof layer, for example, with latex weather-resistant paints.

Companies working on the so-called cutting technology produce more than 30 standard sizes of wall and partition blocks and small-piece products with high-precision geometric dimensions.

WALL CONCRETE STONES (BLOCKS)

Modern hollow wall blocks produced in color, rusticated, having a texture that does not require additional plastering. The technology makes it possible to produce blocks with the texture of natural stone, which increases the architectural expressiveness of the building.

Figure 7. Hollow wall blocks: a - 2 hollow stone; b - 7-8 slot stones; c - partition stone; g - jumper stone; d - full-bodied stone.

2 hollow stone is issued with the sizes 390*190*188 mm. It has two large voids (near the bulk of the stones). Moreover, every 4th stone has a gap in the partition. This gap allows you to split the stone in half. The end walls of the stone are smooth, which allows it to be used as corner element, for the construction of columns and pillars of fences.
The presence of large through voids allows them to be used for laying hidden communications, ventilation.

The name "7-8 slot stone" is dictated by the fact that every 4th stone has a 7 slot design. The 7th slot is perpendicular to the front walls in the middle of the stone and makes it possible to split it in half. Other stones have 8 slots. These slots longitudinally divide the front walls of the stone into 3 cavities. The cavities are connected by thin bridges. During masonry, the voids are not filled with anything, and even more so with a solution, since the cold does not spread through the air, but through a denser material (aggregate). In the arrangement of the cracks of the stone, the principle of masonry "well" is implemented.

Partition stone in They are produced with dimensions: 390*190*188 mm and 590*190*188 mm. Every 12th stone has a gap in the middle partition and can be divided in half into two halves of the stone.

lintel stone designed for overwindows, overdoors and other lintels in the form of the main wall masonry material.
Stone dimensions 390*190*188 mm. The lintel stone has a groove inside. A reinforcing cage and concrete are laid in the gutter. The result is a non-standard jumper.

Full bodied stone more often used as a stone for the foundation of manual laying, it is produced with dimensions of 390 * 190 * 188 mm.
This is a really convenient stone for foundation formation, as it does not require additional lifting mechanisms. The stone is commensurate with the main wall material and, if necessary, allows you to achieve bends, turns and other curvilinear forms of the foundation.

A number of domestic firms produce solid wall stones made of expanded clay concrete, with an average density of 800-1200 kg / m 3 M-5-7.5, thermal conductivity of 0.25-0.4 W / (m ° C) and frost resistance F 25 -35.

front ordinal (rust)		front ordinal (slate)	front half with a cutout on the left (rust)
front ordinal (rust)	front ordinal (slate)	front corner left (fur coat)	front half with cutout on the right (rust)
front with a cutout on the left (rust)	front ordinal (rust)	front corner right (rust)	front half (rust)

Texture

Rice. eight. Types of wall stones rusticated, colored, textured

In addition, in order to reduce the weight, increase their thermal performance, wall stones are produced with thermal inserts made of polyurethane foam or expanded polystyrene. These elements have all the best properties of traditional expanded clay concrete and high thermal insulation capacity of foam plastics.

Rice. 9. Wall stone with thermal inserts (polystyrene foam)

SOLID CONCRETE WALLS

Monolithic concrete walls are made in various types of formwork.

In this case, we are talking about the use of lightweight formwork, the installation and dismantling of which is carried out by 1-2 workers without the use of lifting mechanisms and intended for the construction of low-rise buildings.

Formwork types

There are 2 types of formwork:

Type 1: small-panel formwork, collapsible and reusable;

Type 2: formwork made of small pieces of heat-insulating elements, one-time use; after monolithic concreting, these elements remain in the wall as thermal insulation.

Small-panel formwork, collapsible, reusable Designed for the construction of monolithic structures of various sizes and configurations (for example, wall, columns).

Formwork made of small-piece heat-insulating elements of single use is an example of the latest energy-saving walling technologies. This technology allows the construction of monolithic concrete walls simultaneously with double thermal insulation from block modules that are easily assembled on the construction site.

Installation of such formwork is carried out by two installers. The production is about 4 m 3 / person per hour, when concreting 20 cm thick using a mortar pump or air gun, the mass of 1 square meter of such a wall is 260 kg. The following advantages of such formworks should also be noted on the examples of the BLUE MAX (BLUE MAXX), ECOSTONE (ECOSTOUN), ARXX (Arks) and IZODOM-2000 (INTECO) systems.

Advantages of this technology:

Significantly lower cost of wall construction compared to traditional ones;

Accurate and fast installation;

No additional sound and heat insulation is required;

"warm" formwork allows concreting in winter;

The formwork is ready for finishing both from the front and from the inside.

Straight fixed formwork block Angle fixed formwork block

Rotary fixed formwork block

Rice. ten. Fixed formwork blocks

straight block is the basic building block of Arxx fixed formwork. All straight walls will be built using these blocks.

corner block- there are corner blocks of the right and left execution. Installation of the corner is carried out alternately by the right and left blocks.

swivel block necessary for the installation of walls with a variable angle. Bay windows or polygonal shapes can be easily created using these blocks.

Plastic jumpers are located inside each block, fastening together PPS panels. They are guides for laying reinforcement, fastening for scaffolding, as well as for interior and exterior decoration.

In monolithic-frame construction STsP plate used as fixed formwork for the erection of the framework of the walls of cottages and multi-storey (without limitation of number of storeys) buildings using heavy and light concrete.

Fixed formwork made of STsP slabs provides: heat and sound insulation, environmental properties of wood, biostability (B0) and fungicidal properties, the wall is warm in the literal and figurative sense.

It also has the following benefits:

Thin walls (larger room area);

High installation rates;

Ease of assembly;

Simple execution of complex elements (bay window, arch, etc.).

Rice. Fig. 11. A fragment of a wall of a typical floor with the use of fixed formwork made of STsP slabs: 1 - heavy concrete; 2 - lightweight concrete; 3 - STsP plate; 4 - fastening brackets; 5 - insulation - polystyrene foam.

STsP (chip-cement board) - is a pressed plate with dimensions of 2000x550 mm, 2000x1100 mm and a thickness of 25-50 mm, consisting of 90% of coniferous wood chips and 10% of high-grade cement, with the addition of liquid glass.

Rice. 12. Appearance of the STsP plate

Basic definitions

Accident - destruction of structures and (or) technical devices used at a hazardous production facility, uncontrolled explosion and (or) release of hazardous substances (Article 1 federal law"O industrial safety hazardous production facilities" dated 21.07.97).

Security Analysis - analysis of the state of a hazardous production facility, including a description of the technology and risk analysis of the operation of the facility.

Risk analysis - the process of hazard identification and risk assessment for individuals or groups of the population, property or the environment (RD 08-120-96).

Declaration of industrial safety of a hazardous production facility - a document that presents the results of a comprehensive accident risk assessment, sufficiency analysis measures taken to prevent accidents and to ensure the readiness of the organization for the operation of a hazardous production facility in accordance with the requirements of the norms and rules of industrial safety, as well as for the localization and elimination of the consequences of an accident at a hazardous production facility (RD 03-315-99).

Declared object - hazardous production facility subject to industrial safety declaration in accordance with industrial safety requirements (RD 03-315-99).

Hazard identification - the process of identifying and recognizing that a danger exists and determining its characteristics (RD 08-120-96).

Identification of hazardous production facilities - classifying an object within an organization as a hazardous production facility and determining its type in accordance with the requirements of the Federal Law "On Industrial Safety of Hazardous Production Facilities" (RD 03-260-99).

Incident - failure or damage to technical devices used at a hazardous production facility, deviation from the regime technological process, violation of the provisions of the Federal Law "On the industrial safety of hazardous production facilities", other federal laws and other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, as well as regulatory technical documents establishing the rules for conducting work at a hazardous production facility (Article 1 of the Federal Law "On the industrial safety of hazardous production facilities" dated 21.07.97).

Maximum hypothetical accident - accident associated with the possible release of hazardous substances from technological equipment(unit), accompanied by failure of emergency protection systems and/or localization of accidents, and/or implementation of erroneous actions of personnel and leading to the maximum possible damage.

Danger - source of potential damage, harm or a situation with the possibility of causing damage (RD 08-120-96).

Hazardous Substances - flammable, oxidizing, combustible, explosive, toxic, highly toxic substances and substances that pose a danger to the environment, listed in Appendix 1 to the Federal Law "On Industrial Safety of Hazardous Production Facilities" dated 21.07.97.

Hazardous production facilities - enterprises or their workshops, sites, sites, as well as other production facilities where:

Hazardous substances are obtained, used, processed, formed, stored, transported, destroyed;

Equipment is used that operates under a pressure of more than 0.07 MPa or at a water heating temperature of more than 115 ° C;

Permanently installed lifting mechanisms, escalators, cable cars, funiculars;

Melts of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys based on these melts are obtained;

underway mining, mineral processing works, as well as work in underground conditions. (in accordance with Article 2 and Appendix 1 to the Federal Law "On Industrial Safety of Hazardous Production Facilities" dated July 21, 1997).

Risk assessment— the process used to determine the degree of risk of the analyzed hazard to human health, property or environment. Risk assessment includes frequency analysis, consequences analysis and their combination (RD 08-120-96).

Settlement and explanatory note - an appendix to the declaration of industrial safety, which provides the rationale for assessing the risk of an accident and the sufficiency of the measures taken to prevent accidents (RD 03-315-99).

Risk - a hazard measure that characterizes the likelihood of possible accidents and the severity of their consequences. The risk (or degree of risk), depending on the objectives of the analysis, is assessed by the relevant indicators (qualitative or quantitative), for example, the expected levels of negative consequences of accidents over a certain period of time (expected damage, the probability of accidents with certain consequences). The main quantitative indicators of risk are:

- individual risk- the frequency of damage to an individual as a result of the impact of the studied accident hazard factors;

- potential territorial risk- spatial (territorial) distribution of the frequency of implementation of the negative impact of a certain level from possible accidents;

- collective risk- the expected number of people affected as a result of possible accidents for a certain period of time;

- social risk- dependence of the frequency of occurrence of events (F), in which at least N people suffered at a certain level, on this number N.

Components of a hazardous production facility - sites, installations, workshops, storages or other components (components) that combine technical devices or their combination according to a technological or administrative principle and are part of hazardous production facilities (RD 03-315-99).

Accident scenario - a sequence of individual logically related events, caused by a specific initiating event, leading to an accident with dangerous consequences (RD 03-315-99).

Typical accident scenario - an accident scenario associated with the release of hazardous substances from a single process equipment (unit), taking into account the scheduled operation of the existing emergency protection systems, localization of the accident and emergency response of personnel.

Industrial safety requirements - conditions, prohibitions, restrictions and other mandatory requirements contained in federal laws and other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, as well as in regulatory technical documents, which are adopted in the prescribed manner and compliance with which ensures industrial safety (Article 3 of the Federal Law "On Industrial Safety of Hazardous Production Facilities" dated July 21, 1997).

Basic concepts, terms and definitions for life support

Life support of the population in emergency situations - this is a set of coordinated and interconnected in terms of purpose, tasks, place and time of actions of territorial and departmental authorities, forces, means and relevant services aimed at creating the conditions necessary to save life and maintain the health of people in the emergency zone, on evacuation routes and in places resettlement of the affected population.

The life support system of the population in emergency situations- a set of governing bodies, organizations, institutions and enterprises with their connections that create and maintain conditions for preserving the life and health of the population affected in the emergency zone, including territorial, functional and departmental links Russian system warnings and actions in emergencies at the local, regional and state levels, situations;

Priority types of life support in emergency situations- vital material resources and services, grouped by functional purpose and similar properties, used to meet the minimum necessary needs of the population affected by emergencies in water, food, housing, essentials, medical and sanitary-epidemiological, information, transport and communal services; household supplies.

The period of life support of the population in emergency situations- limited time
beginning and end of satisfaction with vital material
facilities and services for the affected population established standards and
standards for emergency situations. :

Priority needs of the population in emergencies- the volumes (quantities) of vital material resources and services necessary to save the life and maintain the health of the population affected in an emergency during the entire period of life support in accordance with the established norms and standards for emergency conditions.

Possibilities of the life support system of the population in emergency situations- volumes (quantities) of vital material resources and services that can be provided to the population affected by the emergency in the life support system this region(industry link) during the entire period of the JON according to the established norms and standards for emergency situations.

Emergencies (ES)- according to GOST 22.02-94 - a condition in which, as a result of the occurrence of an emergency source at an object, a certain territory or water area, normal conditions life and activities of people, there is a threat to their life and health, damage to the property of the population, national economy and the natural environment.

In accordance with the requirements of GOST R 22.3.01-94, the life support of the population in emergency situations is carried out according to the following main types: water; food and food raw materials; essentials; housing; medical and sanitary-epidemiological services; information service; transport service; public utilities.

OBJECTS OF THE LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM OF THE POPULATION:

objects of control, communication and notification;

objects of the fuel and energy complex;

objects of the food industry, enterprises Catering;

Public utilities enterprises;

institutions of public health and pharmacology;

institutions of housing and communal services (HCS);

objects and enterprises of transport (passenger and freight);

institutions of state supervision and control in the field of security.

The main directions of increasing the stability of the functioning of the country's economy:

* Ensuring the protection of the population and its livelihoods in wartime;

* rational placement productive forces on the territory of the country;

* preparation for work in wartime sectors of the economy;

* preparation for the implementation of work to restore the economy in wartime;

* preparation of an economic management system for solving wartime problems.

In relation to these main areas, specific measures to improve sustainability should be developed and implemented: in sectors of the economy - for the industry (sub-sector) as a whole, for subordinate associations and facilities, taking into account the specifics and prospects further development industries; in territorial units - for the subject of the federation as a whole, economic regions, regions, districts, cities and other settlements, as well as for industries and objects of federal subordination, taking into account natural, economic and other local features.

For an industry link of an association, an object, the main directions for increasing sustainability are interpreted as follows:

* ensuring the protection of workers, employees, family members, the population living in departmental settlements and their livelihoods in emergency situations;

* rational distribution of the productive forces of the industry, sub-sector, association, production assets of the object in the relevant territory;

* preparation of the industry, sub-sector, association, object to work in emergency situations;

* preparation for the performance of work to restore the industry, sub-sector, association (object) in emergency situations;

* preparation of a management system for an industry, sub-sector, association (object) to solve problems in emergency situations.

In the main areas, measures are being developed and implemented to increase sustainability:

* in territorial units (republic, territory, region, city, district), taking into account the natural, economic and other features of these units;

in a sector of the economy - for the sector as a whole, for its subordinate associations and facilities, taking into account the specifics of their activities and prospects for further development.

Warning emergencies can be done in the following areas:

1. Development and implementation of new technologies (the Ministry of Emergency Situations can only contribute).

2. Compliance with rules and regulations production activities(state supervision and control is a national task).

3. Improving the training of production personnel.

4. Forecast of possible emergencies.

6. Licensing of potentially hazardous activities.

7. Monitoring of potentially dangerous processes and technologies.

Basic concepts on terrorism

Terrorism- violence or the threat of its use against individuals or organizations, as well as the destruction (damage) or the threat of destruction (damage) of property or other material objects, creating a danger of death of people, causing significant property damage or the onset of other socially dangerous consequences, carried out in order to violation of public security, elimination of violence or influencing the adoption by the authorities of a decision beneficial to terrorists, or the satisfaction of illegal property and (or) other interests; encroachment on the life of a statesman or public figure committed in order to terminate his state or other political activity or out of revenge for such activities; attack on a representative of a foreign state or employee international organizations persons enjoying international protection, as well as on office premises or vehicles of persons enjoying international protection, if this act was committed for the purpose of provoking war or complicating international relations.

Terrorist activity- activities that include:

1. Organization, planning, preparation and implementation of a terrorist action;

2. Incitement to a terrorist act, violence against individuals or organizations, destruction of material objects for terrorist purposes;

3. Organization of an illegal armed criminal community (criminal organization), an organized group to commit a terrorist action, as well as participation in such an action;

4. Recruitment, arming, training and use of terrorists;

5. Financing a known terrorist organization or
terrorist group or otherwise assisting them;

International terrorist activities- terrorist activities carried out:

1. A terrorist or terrorist organization in the territory
more than one State or detrimental to the interests
more than one state;

2. Citizens of one state in relation to citizens of another
state or on the territory of another state;

3. In the case where both the terrorist and the victim of terrorism are
citizens of the same state or different states,
but the crime was committed outside the territories of these
states.

Terrorist action- the direct commission of a crime of a terrorist nature in the form of an explosion, arson, the use or threat of use of nuclear explosive devices, radioactive, chemical, biological, explosive, toxic, poisonous, poisonous potent substances; destruction, damage or seizure of vehicles or other objects, encroachment on the life of a statesman or public figure, a representative of national, ethnic, religious or other groups of the population; hostage-taking, kidnapping; creating a danger of causing harm to life, health or property of an indefinite number of persons by creating conditions for accidents and man-made disasters or a real threat of creating such a danger; dissemination of threats in any form and by any means; other actions that create a danger of death of people, causing significant property damage or other socially dangerous consequences.

Crime of a terrorist nature- crimes under Art. 205-208, 277, 360 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. Other crimes provided for by the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation may also be classified as crimes of a terrorist nature, if they are committed for terrorist purposes. Responsibility for the commission of such crimes comes in accordance with the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation.

Terrorist- a person involved in the implementation of terrorist activities in any form.

terrorist group- a group of persons united for the purpose of carrying out terrorist activities.

terrorist organization- an organization established for the purpose of carrying out terrorist activities or recognizing the possibility of using terrorism in its activities. An organization is considered terrorist if at least one of its structural divisions carries out terrorist activities with the knowledge of at least one of the governing bodies of this organization.

Fight against terrorism- activities to prevent, detect, suppress, minimize the consequences of terrorist activities.

counter-terrorist operation- special events aimed at suppressing a terrorist action, ensuring the safety of individuals, neutralizing terrorists, as well as minimizing the consequences of a terrorist action.

Zone of the counter-terrorist operation- separate areas of terrain or water area, vehicle, building, structure, structure, premises and adjacent territories or water areas within which the specified operation is carried out.

Hostage- an individual captured and (or) held in order to compel the state, organization or individuals to take any action as a condition for the release of the detained person.

Terrorism can be classified according to the following criteria

I. By the customer of terrorist acts. Regardless of the goals and objectives pursued by terrorist acts, each of them reflects someone's specific interests. Whichever. Who acts as a "customer", whose goals and objectives are pursued by the commission of a terrorist act, terrorism can be divided into the following types:

1.1. State terrorism.

State terrorism is organized and carried out government bodies. The perpetrators are most often employees of the special services, or outside the state terrorist organizations. In turn, according to the direction of action, state terrorism can be divided into domestic and foreign state.

Domestic terrorism (repressive terrorism) is used by government circles to intimidate or physically eliminate their opponents, or entire social groups populations.

Depending on the goals and objectives foreign policy, the state can use terrorism as a tool to achieve its goals abroad - foreign state terrorism. Foreign state terrorism can be of two types - covert, carried out by clandestine terrorist organizations or individual terrorists, or military, carried out by armed formations.

Foreign state terrorism closely borders on international terrorism. Their difference, in our opinion, is as follows:

a) the initiator of foreign policy terrorism is always
the state in whose interests these acts are carried out acts. The perpetrators are state intelligence services, international terrorist organizations or individuals not belonging to the state, in whose interests a terrorist act is carried out;

b) organizers of international terrorist attacks
acts are carried out by non-state terrorist structures. At the same time, goals are pursued that do not meet the interests of any state, but the interests of the terrorist organization itself.

1.2. ethnic terrorism.

The history of terrorism knows the existence of non-state terrorist organizations that protect the interests of representatives of a particular nation. As a rule, the main part of such an organization consists of persons of the nationality whose ethnic interests are protected by the organization.

good example ethnic terrorism can serve as an operation of Chechen fighters in Budenovsk.

1.3. clan terrorism.

The presence of large political and criminal clans, the struggle between them for power and the distribution of income-generating spheres of influence is often accompanied by the commission of terrorist acts against the leaders and members of other clans.

Clan terrorism is also clearly seen in the struggle between various kinds of criminal associations fighting among themselves for the expansion of zones of influence.

1.4. individual terrorism.

Terrorist acts are often committed by individual citizens in their own interests. Basically, these are the hijackings of civilian aircraft for a flight to another country.

II. Other criteria for classifying terrorism may be the goals and objectives pursued in the commission of terrorist acts. According to him, terrorism can be divided into the following areas:

2.1. political terrorism.

Political terrorism is usually aimed at changing (destabilizing) the existing system, seizing or holding power. Political terrorism, in turn, can be divided into separate areas:

a) political terrorism carried out in order to overthrow the existing system and seize power (revolutionary terror). An example of "revolutionary terror" is the activity of "Narodnaya Volya" in whose activities terror was assigned the role of a detonator of an uprising;

b) terror as a means of retaining seized power (repressive terror). The Bolsheviks, having seized power as a result of the October coup, declared the "Red Terror" in order to break the possible resistance of the opponents of Bolshevism.

2.2. Economic terrorism.

In 1987, in Kansas City (USA), the issue of the impact of terrorism on the activities of American companies and corporations abroad was considered. The terrorists' targeting of American business firms and industrial enterprises determined by the desire to influence firms in order to change or terminate their activities. Thus, in 1976, terrorists kidnapped one of the leading specialists of the Ovens-Illinois company in Venezuela. One of the conditions for his release was a demand to increase the wages of Venezuelan workers working for this firm.

III. Currency terrorism.

Currency terrorism is close to economic - the desire of terrorists to receive large sums Money. For the period from 1970 to 1980. US $300 million was paid to terrorists as ransoms. Currency terrorism is so effective that it is being used by criminal elements to obtain funds. In Luxembourg in 1985, terrorists attacked a number of banks, seizing 20 million francs from them.

IV. Targeted terrorism.

Terrorist organizations, in addition to striving to achieve their goals, almost constantly direct their efforts to eliminate officials the state apparatus, in the first place - law enforcement officers counteracting the terrorist movement. In essence, the terrorists are taking revenge on public servants, politicians, and the military responsible for their activities.

Naturally, when considering the activities of terrorist organizations, it can be difficult to attribute the organization itself or its activities to one of the above criteria. In addition, the number of criteria for the systematization and classification of terror can be continued.

1. Depending on the level of collection and distribution of taxes they are divided into:

§ federal : value added tax, excises, income tax, personal income tax, contributions to state social off-budget funds, state duties, customs duties, mineral extraction tax, forest tax, water tax, environmental tax, federal license fees.

§ Regional (taxes of subjects of the Russian Federation): corporate property tax, real estate tax, road user tax, gambling tax, regional license fees.

§ local : land tax, advertising tax, inheritance or gift tax, local license fees.

The list of taxes is established at the state level, and the rates reg. and local taxes on reg. and local level.

2. According to the object of taxation, the following are divided:

§ Direct taxes depends on the amount of income and the size of the property. The higher the income, the higher the tax. Income tax for individuals and legal entities.

§ indirect taxes does not depend on the amount of income and the size of the property. They are included in the price or cost of production and are paid by the consumer - for products, services and work (VAT, excises, etc.)

3. According to the place of receipt of payments and the direction of their use:

§ To the budget all taxes from point 1.

§ off-budget fund- pension fund, social insurance fund, honey. insurance.

4. According to the place of formation:

Taxes included in the cost price - property insurance, land tax, environmental payments, tax on the extraction of minerals; taxes included in the price of products;

Taxes paid at the expense of financial results - VAT, excises, income and property taxes.

34. The main types of taxes paid by enterprises of the material
production.

Type of tax	Rate, amount of tax
Price taxes
excise tax	10;20% of value added
sales tax	Up to 5% of the cost of products sold for cash including excise and VAT
Taxes on income (or financial result)
income tax	24% of book profit
Tax on dividends	6% - for residents, 15% - from dividends foreign organizations, 15% - on government securities
Property tax	Up to 2% of property value
Advertising tax	5% of the cost of advertising
For environmental pollution	Special calculation (about 10% of the economic damage)
Taxes attributable to cost
Land payment	For 1 hectare at rates
Road user tax	1% of the cost products sold
Unified social tax (UST)	35.6% of payments and remuneration by employees of the enterprise
Mining tax	For oil and gas 16.5% of the value of the extracted minerals
Personal Income Taxes
Income tax	13% of income 30-35% of dividends and other types of income

35. Basic organizational - legal forms enterprises
material production.

Organization	Owners	Property	Control	Profit distribution	A responsibility
1. HPI	Not a legal entity, but a citizen	Shared capital, personal property	Self management	Between members	All property
2. General partnership(full XT)	Participants, in accordance with the agreement concluded between them	Shared capital	By general agreement of all participants or by a majority of votes, each participant has 1 vote	In proportion to the shares of participants in the share capital (under the agreement), also distributed debts	All property for the obligations of the partnership
3. HT on faith (limited partnership)	Partnership members + contributors	Shared capital	Full partners and contributors	In proportion to the shares in the capital between participants and investors	In the amount of deposits
4. Limited Liability Company (LLC)	Legal and individuals	The cost of the contribution of participants	supreme body– assembly will be created executive agency; external auditor may be involved	According to the share of invested capital	* participants are not liable for obligations and bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the company; * participants who have not made a contribution in full are liable for its obligations to you within the value of the unpaid part of the contribution of each of the participants
5. Joint Stock Company (JSC)	Founder + shareholders	Share price	General meeting shareholders; board of directors, executive body	By full cost and the number of shares of shareholders
6. Production cooperative	Voluntary association of citizens on the basis of membership of individuals and legal entities	It is divided into members in accordance with the charter of the cooperative; indivisible funds; after liquidation are determined in accordance with the labor participation of members	General meeting with the chairman; only members of the cooperative	Between members in accordance with the participation, unless stipulated by the agreement	Members are vicariously liable under the code or statute
7. State or municipal enterprise	State	Indivisible and owned	Authority unitary enterprise is the owner		All property
8. Consumer cooperative	Voluntary association of citizens and legal entities on the basis of membership	Share contributions	Management body, stipulated by the charter	Between members by statute	Jointly and severally, in the extent of the unpaid part of the additional contribution of each member

H6. Intra-industry structure of oil and gas enterprises
industry.

The oil and gas industry is a complex complex, which consists of various production processes, which are closely related to each other.

Sub-sectors:

1. search and exploration of oil fields (provides the discovery of new fields and preparation for industrial development. It is carried out by special state enterprises and divisions of a number of oil companies);

2. well drilling (prepares new wells for operation, creates conditions for production, is a link between geological exploration and production);

3. production (we create a raw material base, all other points are serviced, produced by oil and gas producing enterprises, their task is to provide oil and gas domestic market)

4. processing (at refineries);

5. transportation and storage (carried out by the gas pipeline systems. Gas pipelines operate according to a single system, supply regulation);

6. construction of main pipelines (carried out by special construction organizations that are independent or are part of n / g companies);

7. oil and gas engineering and apparatus building (enterprises produce a significant amount of oil-and-gas equipment at special plants).

37. Management of enterprises as part of vertically integrated
oil companies and OAO Gazprom.

1. Oil industry.

BUT) oil industry RF is represented by vertically integrated oil companies(VIOC), uniting enterprises of oil production, processing and marketing of petroleum products, which are subsidiaries of VIOC (DAO).

B) VIOCs in most cases are holdings in which the "parent company - IOC" is the holder of a controlling stake in its subsidiaries in order to control and manage their activities.

C) Subsidiaries of VIOCs as part of the holding are independent enterprises that carry out their production and business activities.

G) State regulation oil companies is carried out through the ownership of a block of shares in VIOCs and the organization of access to the main oil pipelines of the companies Transneft and Transnefteprodukt, the controlling stake (75%) of which is owned by the state.

Types of VIOCs.

1) VINK - holding.

A controlling stake in DAO belongs to the parent company.

2) VIOC is a corporation.

Enterprises that are part of the VIOC lose the status of DAO and turn into LLC, the transition to a "single share" of the company.

Central function at the parent company level.

3) VIOCs as part of financial and industrial groups (FIGs).

The central function at the bank level is the owner of the controlling stake.

Gas industry

It is fundamentally important that the gas industry is a single production and technical complex of continuous operation, which includes gas production, processing, transportation and storage enterprises, technologically and organizationally related unified system gas supply (EGS), which also has a well-developed infrastructure.

The privatization of the state concern "Gasprom" was carried out on the basis of the Decree of the President of 05.11.1992 as a single production and technological complex (which is fundamentally different from the creation of VIOCs on the basis of previously corporatized independent enterprises of the oil complex).

OAO Gazprom has two groups of management entities.

Group 1 Subsidiaries that ensure the functioning of the UGSS of the Russian Federation: - drilling enterprises - production enterprises - the largest - Yamburgazdobycha, Urengoygazprom, Nadymgazprom, Orenburggazprom. - gas transportation companies, the largest: Tyumentransgaz, Mostransgaz, Lentransgaz, Nefttransgaz. - Central Dispatching Office (CDU) - Firm "Gazobezopasnost" and others. In total 38 entities 100% of their shares are the property of OAO "Gazprom"

2nd group Subsidiaries joint-stock companies(DAO) providing Gazprom's infrastructures. These enterprises are: - construction of gas industry facilities. - gas machine and apparatus building plants. - research and production enterprises. - research institutes. A total of 26 entities, 51% of the shares of the DAO are owned by OAO Gazprom.

Group 1 enterprises are managed by OAO Gazprom on a corporate basis.

The management of enterprises of the 2nd group is carried out on the principles of holding.

Placement of a block of shares of OAO Gazprom:

40% - the property of the Russian Federation.

15% - members' shares labor collective and administration of Gazprom.

1.1% JSC Rosgazifikatsiya.

10% is the property of Gazprom itself.

Systems are divided into classes according to various signs, and depending on the problem being solved, different classification principles can be chosen.

Attempts have been made to classify systems according to the following criteria:

■ by type of displayed object(technical, biological, economic, etc. systems);

■ mind scientific direction, used for their modeling (mathematical, physical, chemical, etc.);

■ interaction with the environment(open and closed);

■ size and difficulties.

It was also proposed to distinguish between the following types of systems:

■ deterministic and stochastic;

■ abstract and material(existing in objective reality); etc.

Classifications are always relative. Yes, in deterministic system can find elements stochasticity, and, conversely, a deterministic system can be considered a special case of a stochastic one (with a probability equal to one).

Similarly, if we take into account the dialectics of the subjective and the objective in the system, then the relativity of the division of systems into abstract and objectively existing: these may be stages of development of the same system.

Indeed, natural and artificial objects, reflected in the human mind, act as abstractions, concepts, and the abstract projects of the systems being created are embodied in real-life objects that can be felt and, when studied, again reflected in the form of an abstract system.

However, the relativity of classifications should not stop researchers. The purpose of any classification is to limit the choice of approaches to displaying the system, to compare the techniques and methods of system analysis to the selected classes, and to give recommendations on the choice of methods for the corresponding class of systems. In this case, the system, in principle, can be simultaneously characterized by several features, i.e. it can be found a place at the same time in different classifications, each of which can be useful in choosing modeling methods.

Let's consider some of the most important classifications of systems.

Open and closed systems. The concept of "open system" was introduced L. von Bertalanffy . Main distinctive features open systems - the ability to exchange mass, energy and information with the environment. In contrast to them, it is assumed that closed systems (of course, up to the accepted sensitivity of the model) are completely devoid of this ability, i.e. isolated from the environment.

Special cases are possible: for example, gravitational and energy processes are not taken into account, and only the exchange of information with the environment is reflected in the system model; then one speaks of information-permeable or, accordingly, information-impenetrable systems.

With an open system model Bertalanffy can be found in his books on general systems theory. There are considered some interesting features open systems.

One of the most important is the following. AT open systems"thermodynamic regularities appear that seem paradoxical and contradict the second law of thermodynamics" . Recall that the second law of thermodynamics ("second law"), formulated for closed systems, characterizes the system with an increase in entropy, a tendency to disorder, and destruction.

This law also manifests itself in open systems (for example, the aging of biological systems). However (in contrast to closed systems) in open systems "entropy withdrawal", its reduction is possible; "such systems can maintain their high level and even develop towards an increase in the order of complexity", i.e. they manifest the regularity considered in the next paragraph self-organization(although Bertalanffy had not yet used the term). That is why it is important for the control system to maintain good communication with the environment.

Purposeful, purposeful systems. When studying economic, organizational objects, it is important to single out a class targeted or purposeful systems.

Explaining these concepts with examples Yu. I. Chernyak emphasizes that in the case big system, an object can be described as if on one language, those. using a single modeling method, albeit in parts, to subsystems (Fig. 1.20, a). BUT complex the system reflects the object "from different angles in several models, each of which has its own language", and in order to harmonize these models, a special metalanguage(Fig. 1.20, b).

Concepts of a large and complex system Chernyak connects with the concept of "observer" (in Fig. 1.20, "observers" are represented by rectangles): for study big system is needed one"observer" (meaning not the number of people taking part in the study or design of the system, but the relative homogeneity of their qualifications: for example, an engineer or an economist), but for understanding difficult systems - need several"observers" of fundamentally different qualifications (for example, a mechanical engineer, a programmer, a computer specialist, an economist, and possibly a lawyer, a psychologist, etc.).

This highlights the presence complex systems of "complex, compound goals" or even "different goals" and "simultaneously many structures in one system (for example, technological, administrative, communication, functional, etc.)" .

Subsequently Chernyak clarifies these definitions. In particular, when determining big system, he introduces the concept "a priori allocated subsystems" , and when defining difficult- concept "incomparable aspects of the characteristics of the object", and includes in the definition the need to use multiple languages ​​and different models .

One of the most complete and interesting classifications by difficulty levels suggested K. Boulding . The levels allocated in it are given in table. 1.4.

Table 1.4

	Difficulty level
Non-living systems	Static structures (skeletons). Simple dynamic structures with a given law of behavior. Cybernetic systems with controlled feedback loops	Crystals. Clockwork. Thermostat
	Open systems with a self-preserving structure (the first stage at which division into living and non-living is possible).	Cells, homeostat.
	Living organisms with a low ability to perceive information.	Plants.
	Living organisms with a more developed ability to perceive information, but do not possess self-awareness.	Animals.
	Systems characterized by self-awareness, thinking and non-trivial behavior.
	social systems. Transcendent systems or systems currently beyond our knowledge	Social organizations

In classification K. Boulding each subsequent class includes the previous one, is characterized by a greater manifestation of the properties of openness and stochastic behavior, more pronounced manifestations of the laws of hierarchy and historicity (discussed in paragraph 1.6), although this is not always noted, as well as more complex "mechanisms" of functioning and development.

When evaluating classifications in terms of their use in choosing methods for modeling systems, it should be noted that such recommendations (up to the choice mathematical methods) are present in them only for classes of relatively low complexity (in the classification K. Boulding, for example, for the level of inanimate systems). For more complex systems it is said that it is difficult to make such recommendations. Therefore, a classification is considered below, in which an attempt is made to link the choice of modeling methods with all classes of systems. The basis of this classification is the degree of organization.

Classification of systems according to the degree of organization. The division of systems according to the degree of organization is proposed in continuation of the idea of ​​their division into well organized and poorly organized, or diffuse. To these two classes, another class has been added developing, or self-organizing systems. These classes are briefly characterized in Table. 1.5.

Table 1.5

	a brief description of	Capabilities applications
1. Well organized	Representation of an object or decision-making process in the form of a well-organized system is possible in those cases when the researcher manages to determine all its elements and their interconnections with each other and with the goals of the system in the form deterministic(analytical, graphical) dependencies. This class of systems includes most models of physical processes and technical systems. When an object is represented by this class of systems, the selection problems goals and definitions of the means to achieve them (elements, connections) are not separated. The problem situation can be described as expressions linking the end with the means(i.e. in the form of a performance criterion, criterion or performance indicator, objective function, etc.), which can be represented by an equation, formula, system of equations	This class of systems is used in cases where a deterministic description can be proposed and the validity of its application has been experimentally shown, i.e. experimentally proven adequacy model of a real object or process. Attempts to apply this class of systems to represent complex multi-component objects or multi-criteria tasks that have to be solved when developing technical complexes, improving the management of enterprises and organizations, etc., are practically fruitless. It requires unacceptable high costs time to form the model, and, in addition, as a rule, it is not possible to set up an experiment that proves the adequacy of the model
2. Poorly organized or diffuse	When presenting an object as a poorly organized, or diffuse, system, the task is not to determine all the components and their connections with the goals of the system. The system is characterized by a certain set of macro-parameters and regularities that are revealed on the basis of a study of a fairly representative sample of components determined with the help of certain rules that reflect the object or process under study. On the basis of such selective, studies obtain characteristics or regularities (statistical, economic, etc.), and extend these regularities to the behavior of the system as a whole with some probability (statistical or in the broad sense of using this term)	Displaying objects as diffuse systems finds wide application in determining bandwidth systems of various kinds, when determining the number of staff in service, for example, repair shops of an enterprise, in service institutions (methods of queuing theory are used to solve such problems), and so on. When applying this class of systems, the main problem is to prove the adequacy of the model. When statistical regularities adequacy is determined by the representativeness of the sample. For economic patterns, methods of proving adequacy have not been studied.
3. Self-organizing, or developing	Class self-organizing or developing, systems are characterized by a number of features, features that bring them closer to real developing objects (see details in Table 1.6). In the study of these features, an important difference between developing systems with active elements and closed systems was revealed - fundamental limitation of their formalized description. This feature leads to the need to combine formal methods and methods of qualitative analysis. Therefore, the main idea of ​​displaying the designed object as a class of self-organizing systems can be formulated as follows. A sign system is being developed, with the help of which the currently known components and relationships are fixed, and then by transforming the resulting display using the selected or accepted approaches and methods ( structuring, or decomposition; compositions, search proximity measures on the state space, etc.) receive new, previously unknown components, relationships, dependencies, which can either serve as a basis for decision-making, or suggest subsequent steps towards preparing a decision. Thus, it is possible to accumulate information about an object, while fixing all the new components and connections (rules of interaction between components), and, applying them, obtain mappings of successive states of a developing system, gradually forming an increasingly adequate model of a real, studied or created object. At the same time, information can come from specialists in various fields of knowledge and accumulate over time as it arises (in the process of knowing an object)	Displaying the object under study as a system of this class allows you to explore the least studied objects and processes with a large uncertainty on initial stage task setting. Examples of such tasks are the tasks that arise in the design of complex technical complexes, research and development of management systems for organizations. Most of the models and methods of system analysis are based on the representation of objects in the form of self-organizing systems, although this is not always specifically stipulated. When forming such models, the usual idea of ​​models, which is characteristic of mathematical modeling and applied mathematics, changes. The idea of ​​proving the adequacy of such models also changes. The adequacy of the model is proved, as it were, sequentially (as it is formed) by evaluating the correctness of the reflection in each subsequent model of the components and relationships necessary to achieve the goals. When an object is represented by a class of self-organizing systems, the tasks of determining goals and choosing means are, as a rule, separated. At the same time, the tasks of determining goals and choosing means, in turn, can be described as self-organizing systems, i.e. structures of the main directions of development of the organization, the structure of the functional part of the automated control system, the structure of the supporting part of the automated control system, organizational structure enterprises, etc. should also be seen as developing systems

In the proposed classification of systems, the systems that existed by the mid-1970s were used. 20th century terms, but they are combined into a single classification, in which the selected classes are considered as approaches to displaying an object or solving a problem, and their characteristics are proposed, which allows choosing a class of systems for displaying an object, depending on the stage of its cognition and the possibility of obtaining information about it.

Problem situations with a large initial uncertainty are more consistent with the representation of an object in the form of a third-class system. In this case, modeling becomes, as it were, a kind of "mechanism" for the development of the system. The practical implementation of such a "mechanism" is associated with the need to develop a procedure for constructing a model of the decision-making process. Model building begins with the application sign system(modeling language), which is based on one of the methods discrete mathematics(for example, set-theoretic representations, mathematical logic, mathematical linguistics) or special methods of system analysis (for example, simulation dynamic modeling, etc.). When modeling the most complex processes (for example, the processes of forming goal structures, improving organizational structures, etc.), the "mechanism" of development (self-organization) can be implemented in the form of an appropriate method of system analysis. On the considered idea of ​​displaying an object in the process of representing it by a class of self-organizing systems, the method of gradual formalization of the decision-making model, which is characterized in Ch. four.

Class self-organizing or developing, systems are characterized by a number of features or features that bring them closer to real developing objects (Table 1.6).

Listed signs self-organizing or developing, systems have a variety of manifestations, which can sometimes be distinguished as independent features. These features, as a rule, are due to the presence of active elements in the system and are of a dual nature: they are new properties that are useful for the existence of the system, its adaptation to changing environmental conditions, but at the same time cause uncertainty and make it difficult to control the system.

We did not give detailed explanatory examples, since each student can easily detect most of these features on the example of his own behavior or the behavior of his friends, the team in which he studies.

Some of the features considered are characteristic of diffuse systems ( stochastic behavior, instability of individual parameters), but most of them are specific features that significantly distinguish this class of systems from others and make their modeling difficult.

At the same time, when creating and organizing enterprise management, they often try to represent them using the theory of automatic regulation and control, which was developed for closed, technical systems and significantly distorts the understanding of systems with active elements, which can harm the enterprise, make it an inanimate "mechanism", unable to adapt to the environment and develop options for their development.

Such a situation began, in particular, to be observed in the former USSR in the 1960s and 1970s. XX century., When too strict directives began to restrain the development of industry.

Table 1.6

Peculiarity	a brief description of
Non-stationarity (variability, instability) of parameters and stochastic behavior	This feature is easily interpreted for any systems with active elements (living organisms, social organizations etc.), causing the stochasticity of their behavior
The uniqueness and unpredictability of the system behavior in specific conditions	These properties are manifested in the system due to the presence of active elements in it, as a result of which the system, as it were, manifests "free will", but at the same time, there is also the presence limit possibilities, determined by the available resources (elements, their properties) and structural connections characteristic of a certain type of systems
Ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions and interference	This property seems to be very useful. However, adaptability can manifest itself not only in relation to interference, but also in relation to control actions, which makes it very difficult to control the system.
principled disequilibrium	When studying the differences between living, developing objects and non-living objects, a biologist Erwin Bauer expressed the hypothesis that the living is fundamentally in an unstable, non-equilibrium state and, moreover, uses its energy to maintain itself in a non-equilibrium state (which is actually life). This hypothesis is increasingly supported by modern research. In this case, problems of maintaining the stability of the system arise.
Ability to resist entropic (system-destroying) tendencies and exhibit negentropic tendencies	It is due to the presence of active elements that stimulate the exchange of material, energy and information products with the environment and showing their own "initiatives", an active principle. Due to this, in such systems, the pattern of entropy increase is violated (similar to the second law of thermodynamics, acting in closed systems, the so-called "second law"), and even observed negentropic trends, i.e. actually self-organization, development, including "free will"
The ability to develop behaviors and change your structure	This property can be provided using various methods that allow you to form a variety of models of decision-making options, reach a new level equifinality, while maintaining the integrity and basic properties
Ability and desire for goal setting	Unlike closed (technical) systems, in which goals are set from the outside in systems with active elements, goals are formed inside systems (for the first time this feature is applied to economic systems was formulated by Y. I. Chernyak); goal setting is the basis of negentropic processes in socio-economic systems
Ambiguity use	For example, "goal - means", "system - subsystem", etc. This feature is manifested in the formation of goal structures, the development of projects for complex technical complexes, automated systems management, etc., when the persons who form the structure of the system, calling some part of it a subsystem, after a while begin to talk about it as a system, without adding the prefix "under", or subgoals begin to be called means to achieve higher goals. Because of this, protracted discussions often arise, which are easily resolved using the pattern of communication, the property of "two-faced Janus" (see more in paragraph 1.6)

The considered features are contradictory. In most cases, they are both positive and negative, desirable and undesirable for the system being created. It is not immediately possible to understand and explain the signs of systems, to select and create the required degree of their manifestation. Philosophers, psychologists, specialists in systems theory are studying the reasons for the manifestation of such features of complex objects with active elements, who, in order to explain these features, propose and investigate patterns of systems. The main regularities of the construction, functioning and development of systems that have been studied so far and explain these features will be considered in the next paragraph.

The manifestation of contradictory features of developing systems and the explanation of their patterns on the example of real objects must be studied, constantly monitored, reflected in models, and search for methods and means to regulate the degree of their manifestation.

At the same time, one should keep in mind the important difference between developing systems with active elements and closed ones: trying to understand the fundamental features of modeling such systems, the first researchers already noted that starting from a certain level of complexity, the system is easier to manufacture and put into operation, transform and change than to be represented by a formal model.

With the accumulation of experience in the study and transformation of such systems, this observation was confirmed, and their main feature was realized - the fundamental limitation of a formalized description of developing, self-organizing systems.

This feature, i.e. the need to combine formal methods and methods of qualitative analysis, and is the basis of most models and methods of system analysis. When forming such models, the usual idea of ​​models, which is characteristic of mathematical modeling and applied mathematics, changes. The idea of ​​proving the adequacy of such models also changes.

The main constructive idea of ​​modeling when displaying an object as a class of self-organizing systems can be formulated as follows.

A sign system is being developed, with the help of which the components and connections known at the moment are fixed, and then, by transforming the already existing display using the established (accepted) rules (rules structuring or decomposition; rules compositions, search proximity measures on the state space) receive new, previously unknown components, relationships, dependencies, which can either serve as a basis for decision-making, or suggest subsequent steps towards preparing a decision.

Thus, it is possible to accumulate information about the object, while fixing all the new components and connections (rules of interaction between components), and, applying them, obtain mappings of the successive states of the developing system, gradually creating an increasingly adequate model of a real, studied or created object.

At the same time, information can come from specialists in various fields of knowledge and accumulate over time as it arises (in the process of knowing an object).

The adequacy of the model is also proved, as it were, sequentially (as it is formed) by evaluating the correctness of the reflection in each subsequent model of the components and relationships necessary to achieve the goals.

In other words, such modeling becomes, as it were, a kind of "mechanism" for the development of the system. The practical implementation of such a "mechanism" is associated with the need to develop a language for modeling the decision-making process. Such a language (sign system) can be based on one of the systems modeling methods (for example, set-theoretic representations, mathematical logic, mathematical linguistics, simulation dynamic modeling, information approach, etc.), but as the model develops, the methods can change.

When modeling the most complex processes (for example, the processes of goal formation, improvement of organizational structures, etc.), the "mechanism" of development (self-organization) can be implemented in the form of an appropriate method of system analysis (examples of which are considered in the applied chapters of the textbook).

The considered class of systems can be divided into subclasses, highlighting adaptive or self-adjusting systems, self-learning systems, self-healing, self-reproducing etc. classes of systems in which the features considered above and not yet studied (for example, for self-reproducing systems) are realized to varying degrees.

When an object is represented by a class of self-organizing systems, the tasks of determining goals and choosing means are, as a rule, separated. At the same time, the tasks of determining goals, in turn, can be described as self-organizing systems, i.e. the structure of the main directions of development of the enterprise, the plan, the structure of the functional part of the automated control system, etc.) should be developed (and even here it is necessary to include the "mechanism" of development more often), as well as the tasks of choosing means, developing the structure of the supporting part of the automated control system, the organizational structure of the enterprise, etc. .d.

Most of the examples of methods, models and techniques of system analysis considered in the following chapters are based on the representation of objects in the form of self-organizing systems, although this will not always be specifically stipulated.

It is convenient to use the considered classes of systems as approaches at the initial stage of modeling any problem. These classes are associated with the methods of formalized representation of systems (Chapter 2), and thus, having determined the class of the system, it is possible to give recommendations on the choice of a method that will allow it to be displayed more adequately.

• See, for example, references to the work of scientists who have contributed to the development of classifications and regularities of systems in the reference book: studies, manual, ed. V. N. Volkova and A. A. Emelyanov.
• Volkova, V. N. Approach to the choice of method of formalized representation of systems / V. N. Volkova, F. E. Temnikov // Modeling of complex systems: Sat. articles. – M.: MDNTP, 1978. – S. 38–40.
• Nalimov, V.V. Influence of the ideas of cybernetics and mathematical statistics on the methodology of scientific research /V. V. Nalimov // Methodological problems of cybernetics: materials for the All-Union Conference. - T.1. - M., 1970. - S. 50-71.