Patterns of form perception. Laws and types of perception. Human perception of the objective environment around him

Perception- direct sensory reflection of objects and phenomena in a holistic form as a result of awareness of their identifying features.

Cognizing the surrounding reality, interacting with it, we meet with the objective world. Objects are identified by us by the totality of their characteristic features. Perceptual images are built on the basis of various sensations. However, they are not reduced to the simple sum of these sensations. Perception is associated with the identification, understanding, comprehension of objects, phenomena, situations, with their assignment to a certain category, type, class. Only by including a phenomenon in a certain system of categories, by covering it with an appropriate concept, can we evaluate and interpret its individual parts and elements. Even considering ordinary points, monotonous elements, we strive for their compositional organization (Fig. 1, 2).

Being a sensory stage of cognition, perception is inextricably linked with thinking, has a motivational orientation, and is accompanied by an emotional response.

To see is to correlate perceived visual signals with one of the hypotheses that exist in the brain's stores. If two different hypotheses can "work", then the brain chooses between them - and then we see either a duck or a rabbit (Fig. 3); an Eskimo standing with his back to us at the entrance to a cave, or an Indian turned in profile (Fig. 4).

Being associated with the identification process, perception includes the processes of comparison, correlation of a given object with typical standards stored in memory. Well-known objects are perceived on a stereotypical basis, quickly and confidently. (How easily letters are recognized by literate people and how difficult it is to recognize them at the first stages of learning.) In the process of ontogenesis, perceptual learning takes place.

People selectively see what they are used to seeing. Familiar objects are perceived simultaneously (simultaneously), little-known objects are perceived in a structurally expanded, step-by-step (successive) manner. In the latter case, a hypothesis about the essence of the object is first put forward, a decision is made about its categorization, nominalization, and then its features are critically evaluated.

The mental development of a person is associated with the development of a culture of perception - an educated, aesthetically developed person is able to enjoy the grace of form, color and sound harmony of objects and phenomena of the environment.

Rice. 5. Record eye movements ( oculogram) when perceiving an object. The most informative points of the contour are fixed, the visual route is structurally organized.

The process of perception is a perceptual action. Its effectiveness depends on what features of the object will be singled out by the subject as the initial supporting elements.

The most important component of each type of perception is motor processes: the movement of the eye along the contour of the object, the movement of the hand along the surface of the object, the movement of the larynx, which reproduces an audible sound (Fig. 5).

Neurophysiological bases of perception.

The physiological mechanism of perception is the complex analytical-synthetic activity of analyzers—the formation of complex conditioned reflexes to complex stimuli.

Two systems interact in the human visual apparatus. One of them selects individual fragments in the object, the other one compiles a complete image from the established subimages (Fig. 6).

Possible incompleteness of the integral image is filled with textures stored in memory. Therefore, we see contours even where they are not drawn, but only possible.

To recognize the situation, the brain stores ready-made generalized schemes ( frames- "skeletons"). Initially grasping the situation, we then seek to fill in the cells of the frame that has arisen - and our eyes are looking for the appropriate detail.

Perception is an active process of forming an image of an object. This activity is already manifested at the receptor level. Three pairs of external muscles of each eye carry out continuous eye movement. Some of them translate the peripheral image of the object to the center of the retina, where the highest visual acuity, others provide tracking of moving objects. The perception of the object is carried out by “groping” eye movements: fast and large-amplitude ( saccadic) movements, smaller forward and backward movements ( tremor) with a frequency of 20 to 150 Hz and an amplitude of 5-15' arc. min, and drift- slow movements at a speed of 6' arc. min/sec and amplitude up to 30' arc. min, preventing the development of local adaptation. Eye movements scan the shape and those key elements of the object of perception that are essential in building a visual image.

In the formation of a perceptual image, the left and right hemispheres of the brain perform different functions. The sensory side of perception is served by the right, and the categorical side - by the left hemisphere of the brain.

Classification of the phenomena of perception.

Depending on the participation of the will, the purposefulness of perception is divided into two forms: involuntary (unintentional, not associated with volitional tension and a predetermined goal) and arbitrary, intentional (purposeful).

Depending on the modality of the receptors, they differ visual, auditory and tactile perception.

There are also complex types of perception: perception of space and time perception.

Depending on the complexity, development, perceptual activity, perception is distinguished between simultaneous (one-act) and successive (stage-by-stage, sequential).

There are also three levels of perception:

1) sensory- sensual coverage of the object, getting it into the field of consciousness;

2) perceptual- comprehension of the object, its assignment to a certain category, class of objects;

3) operational- activity coverage of the object.

Perceptions can also be classified depending on the specifics of the object of reflection (perception of works of art, speech, etc.). Perception is usually included in some kind of activity, but it can also act as an independent activity.

Rice. 7. The tendency of consciousness towards the meaningfulness of the object is so great that we even “see” non-existent boundaries between the triangle and the background. The incompleteness of a holistic image is filled with textures stored in memory.

Systematic, specially organized perception to resolve any issue is called observation.

General patterns of perception.

Different types of perception have specific patterns. But besides the intraspecific ones, there are general patterns of perception: 1) meaningfulness and generalization; 2) objectivity; 3) integrity; 4) structure; 5) selective orientation; 6) apperception; 7) constancy.

1. Meaningfulness and generalization of perception. Perceiving objects and phenomena, we realize, understand what is perceived.

Perception is associated with attribution this subject to a certain category, concept, with its designation in a word. (It is no coincidence that children, when meeting with unfamiliar objects, always ask for their name.) The categorical correlation of perceived objects organizes the entire process of perception, its adequacy and direction. Only by determining the category of the perceived object, you will recognize all its features.

Perception largely depends on the purpose and objectives of the activity. In an object, those aspects of it that correspond to a given task come to the fore.

Rice. 10. The perception of a fragment of an object is facilitated by its inclusion in the context of the situation. In the upper rectangle, the letters are not identified by their fragments. In the lower rectangle, the letters are easy to read due to situational context.

Rice. 9. These disparate spots are combined into a single visual image, if you turn the image 180º, you will understand its meaning.

Due to the meaningfulness and generalization of perception, we conjecture and complete the image of the object according to its individual fragments (Fig. 7 and 8).

Most simple form comprehension of objects and phenomena - recognition. Here, perception is closely related to memory. To recognize an object means to perceive it in relation to a previously formed image.

Recognition can be generalized when the subject belongs to some general category(for example, "this is a table", "this is a tree", etc.), and differentiated(specific) when the perceived object is identified with a previously perceived single object. This is a higher level of recognition. For this kind of recognition, it is necessary to highlight features specific to a given object, it will accept it.

Recognition is characterized by certainty, accuracy and speed. When recognizing, a person does not highlight all the features of an object, but uses its characteristic identification features. (So, we recognize the steamer from afar by the presence of a pipe and do not mix it with a boat.)

Recognition is hampered by insufficient identification features. The minimum of signs necessary for the identification of an object is called threshold of perception.

Rice. 11. The integrity of perception is violated if the individual elements of the object are excessively scattered. So, when a newspaper photograph is enlarged ten times, the raster dots of a typographic cliché do not merge into an integral image (when the image is removed by 1 m, the integrity of perception is restored).

2. Objectivity of perception. A person perceives mental images of objects not as images, but as real items, bringing images outside, objectifying them. objectivity- the relation of brain information about objects to real objects. Objectivity of perception means adequacy, correspondence of images of perception to real objects of reality, "objectivity" of the image.

3. Integrity of perception. In objects and phenomena of reality, their individual features and properties are in a constant stable relationship. In perception, as in the mental image of an object, these stable links between the components of an object or phenomenon, which is expressed in the integrity of perception.

Even in those cases when we do not perceive some signs of a familiar object, we mentally supplement them. We strive to unite the individual parts of the object into a single integral formation familiar to us (Fig. 9, 10, 11).

Thus, the integrity of perception is a reflection of an object as a stable systemic integrity (even if its individual parts are not observed under given conditions). The integrity of perception is violated if the object cannot be comprehended (Fig. 12).

4. Structural perception. We recognize various objects due to the stable structure of their features. In the process of perception, the relationship of parts and sides of the object is singled out. Awareness of perception is inextricably linked with the reflection of stable relationships between the elements of the perceived object (Fig. 12 and 13).

In cases where it is difficult to identify the structure of an object, the perception of the object as a whole is also difficult.

5. Selective orientation of perception. Of the countless number of objects and phenomena that surround us, we single out at the moment only a few of them. It depends on what the activity of a person is aimed at, on his needs and interests.

Selectivity of perception - the primary selection of the object from the background. In this case, the background performs the function of a reference system, relative to which the spatial and color qualities of the figure are evaluated.

Rice. 14. In the figure on the left, two vertical sectors are mainly distinguished, on the right - horizontal sectors.

The object stands out from the background along its outline. Contour is contrast. The contour we perceive due to the "jump" in brightness or color. The sharper, more contrast the contour of the object, the easier it is to select it. And vice versa, if the contours of the object are blurred, inscribed in the background lines, the object is difficult to distinguish. (This phenomenon underlies the disguise.)

The selectivity of perception is accompanied by the centralization of perception - the subjective expansion of the zone of focus of attention and the compression of the peripheral zone. With the equivalence of objects, the central object and the larger object are predominantly distinguished (Fig. 15, 16).

Objects located along the vertical and horizontal axes are subject to preferential selection (Fig. 14).

Rice. Fig. 18. Distribution of visual fixation points on a square panel when perceiving homogeneous material.

If the object and the background are equivalent, then they can pass into each other (the background becomes the object, and the object becomes the background (Fig. 17).

However, even when perceiving homogeneous material, attention is distributed unevenly (Fig. 18).

6. Apperception(from lat. ad- to and perception- perception) - the dependence of perception on experience, knowledge, interests and attitudes of the individual. Looking at a burning fire from afar, we do not feel its warmth, but this quality is included in the perception of a fire. In our experience, the fire and heat entered into a strong relationship. When we look at a frozen window, we also add to our visual perception the temperature sensations gleaned from past experience. Depending on past experience, knowledge, professional orientation, a person selectively perceives their various aspects (Fig. 19).

Apperception can be personal and situational (at night in the forest, a stump can be perceived as a figure of a dangerous beast).

7. Constancy of perception. The same familiar objects are consistently perceived by us in changing conditions: under different illumination, from different points of view, different distances. Constancy of perception(from lat. constantis - constant) - the independence of the reflection of the objective qualities of objects (size, shape, characteristic color) from the changed conditions of their perception - illumination, distance, angle of view.

The image of the size of an object on the retina will be different when perceived from close and far distances. However, this is interpreted by us as the remoteness or proximity of the object, and not as a change in its size (Fig. 20, 21).

Rice. 20. Constancy of perception. Of two objects of the same size, the more distant one gives a smaller image on the retina. However, this does not affect an adequate assessment of their actual value. In this case, the brain takes into account information about the accommodation of the lens (the closer the object, the more curved the surface of the lens), the convergence of the visual axes (convergence of the visual axes of the two eyes) and the tension of the eye muscles.

When perceiving a rectangular object (folder, sheet of paper) from different points of view, a square, a rhombus, and even a straight line can be displayed on the retina. However, in all cases, we retain the form inherent in this object. A white sheet of paper, regardless of its illumination, will be perceived as a white sheet, just as a piece of anthracite will be perceived with its inherent color quality, regardless of lighting conditions.

The constancy of perception is not a hereditary quality, it is formed in experience, the learning process. Pilots of supersonic aircraft at first interpret a very fast approach of an object as its increase in size, and temporary inconsistency arises. Aconstantity may occur when perceiving relief in photographic images and drawings (Fig. 22).

Aconstant(from lat. illudere- to deceive) - an illusion of perception, distortion in the perception of objects. The most common visual illusions. They arise for a number of reasons. Illusion of irradiation, in which light objects appear larger than their equal dark objects, is associated with irradiation of excitation in the retina (Fig. 23).

The perceived size of the figures depends on their objective environment. Yes, thanks illusions of contrast objects of the same size will appear different in size if one of them is surrounded by large objects, and the other is surrounded by smaller objects (Ebbinghaus illusion - Fig. 24, 25).

In the Muller-Lyer illusion, two identical lines ending in differently directed angles appear to be unequal in length. Due to the large difference between two neighboring parts of identical objects, one of them seems large (Fig. 26).

Rice. 25. Identical figures on a smaller zero seem to be large.

Rice. 24. Illusion of contrast. The inner circle on the left appears larger than the inner circle on the right. In reality, they are equal (Ebbinghaus illusion).

Vertical lines are overestimated compared to horizontal ones (Fig. 27). Parallel lines appear non-parallel under the influence of the lines crossing them (Zellner illusion - Fig. 28). Line segments intersecting two vertical rectangles are perceived as segments located on different levels(Pogendorf illusion - Fig. 29). Due to the overestimation of the size of sharp corners, the circle with the square inscribed in it seems to be bent at the corners of the square (Fig. 30.)

Both receptor mechanisms and features of the functioning of the central nervous system are involved in the appearance of illusions. Some visual illusions are due to the optical features of the eye.

Illusions are subject not only to visual, but also other types of perception So, if you hold in your hands two objects that are the same in weight and appearance, but different in volume (for example, large and smaller in size, but not in weight balls), then the object, which is smaller in size, is perceived as heavier (Charpentier illusion) . This is explained by our generalized experience - the larger the object, the greater its weight.

If, crossing the index and thumb, we touch the ball or pencil, placing these objects in the resulting crosshairs, then we will feel a double touch (Aristotle's illusion). This is because the receptor fields of opposite fingers usually touch different objects.

Contrasting illusions are common not only in the field of visual perception, but also in the field of auditory, gustatory, tactile, temperature and kinesthetic sensations. Thus, the contrast illusion of kinesthetic sensitivity arises after repeated perception of objects that differ in weight and volume - the subsequent presentation of objects equal in the same respects is perceived illusory: an object that is located in the place of a previously presented smaller object seems larger and heavier (Uznadze's installation experiments) .

In some cases, visual illusions can be the cause of inadequate actions. For example, when entering the tunnel on Triumfalnaya Square (formerly Mayakovsky Square) in Moscow, cars often drove into oncoming traffic. Psychological experts found that the light of the advertisement, then located on the building of the Sofia restaurant, fell in such a way that the illusion of shifting the entrance to the tunnel was created. After replacement billboard traffic violations stopped.

Illusions are recognized thanks to our psychological knowledge. They are not only "pests" of our perception, but also a factor that ensures the adequacy of conditional images. Thanks to illusions, we translate the two-dimensional images of artistic paintings into three-dimensional spatial representations, and we interpret images of different sizes as the same, if the accompanying circumstances are taken into account.

Features of the perception of space and time.

Space and time are universal forms of the existence of matter. The perception of space and time reflects the objective spatio-temporal relations between objects.

Perception of the spatial qualities of an object consists of the perception of size, shape, volume, distance, location of objects and their movement. The size and shape of objects are perceived as a result of a combination of visual, tactile and kinesthetic (musculo-motor) sensations in a person's experience.

One of the factors of spatial perception is the binarity of the sense organs and the symmetry of the human body. Perceiving the spatial features of objects, their location in space, a person proceeds from the normal position of his body, perpendicular to the plane of the earth, the data of the balance apparatus are taken into account.

Form perception is a complex perceptual process. In him great importance have fast, jerky eye movements. In this case, the optical data are processed by the brain in combination with the data of the oculomotor muscles - the eye, as it were, feels the object.

Rice. 35. Aconstantity in the perception of relief images. Flip the drawing 180º - small protrusions will be perceived as indentations, and large indentations as protrusions. It depends on the subconscious interpretation of the direction of the light, which usually goes towards the observer.

The process of visual perception has a certain phasing - microgenesis. At the first stage (30 - 50 ms), the spatial position, distance and size of the visual stimulus (object) are assessed. When perceiving a moving object, it takes from 50 to 140 ms to determine the parameters of its movement. Further, the specification of the form of the perceived object is carried out.

The whole process of formation of a stable spatially localized visual image is completed 300 msec after the presentation of the stimulus.

The eye, according to I.M. Sechenov, functions as a measuring instrument. When perceiving a flat form, a clear distinction between the outlines of an object and its contour is essential. Depth vision plays the main role in the perception of three-dimensional form. The closer the object is, the more intense the depth vision. So, the shape of a cube seems to be more elongated near, and flattened far away. Tunnels, alleys, and similar extended objects, when viewed from a distance, seem shorter than when perceived from a close distance.

When perceiving the shape of an object, its interaction with the background is essential(from fr. fon - bottom, base). In visual perception, the background acts as the basis for the reference system - the color and spatial characteristics of the object are evaluated in relation to the background. The background provides information about the situation of perception, ensures the constancy of perception.

Rice. 37. Rubin vase. In this picture, the image of a vase on a black background is alternately perceived, then two profiles on a white background. However, if one of the objects becomes the subject of active research, then it will also become a stable object of perception.

Rice. 36. And in this figure, only the central figure is consistently perceived. Why?

In situations of equivalence between the object and the background, the effect of the duality of the figure. At the same time, periodic fluctuations of attention occur - its fluctuation occurs (Fig. 36, 37).

The clarity of perception is facilitated by the sharp outline of the contour of the object. With the difference in the contour of the object, the process of its perception begins. Only then does its form and structure differ.

The relief and volume of objects, the depth of space are perceived due to the fact that their image falls on mismatched (disparate) points of the retina of two eyes - in this case, the image in the retinas of both eyes does not completely match and, as a result, stereoscopic effect

Remoteness of items It is also perceived through binocular vision. The perception of the remoteness of an object depends not only on the size of its image on the retina, but also on the tension of the eye muscles, the curvature of the lens. When viewing distant objects, the lens becomes flat. This change in the curvature of the lens depending on the distance of the objects in question is called accommodation. But accommodation provides information about the remoteness of objects only within a range of up to 6 m. If objects are removed at a greater distance, then information about their remoteness enters the brain from the relative position of the visual axes (Fig. 38).

Rice. 39. Stereoscopic visual perception. Relief, volume, depth are reflected thanks to binocular vision - vision with two eyes. Above - the perception of the object with one left and one right eye. Below is an object seen with both eyes.

Rice. 38. Reflection of the depth of space, remoteness of the object. To assess the distance of objects, information is used on the state of the lens of the eye (the phenomenon of accommodation), the angle of convergence of the visual axes, the tension of the eye muscles, the overlap of some objects with others, data on linear and aerial perspective.

For the perception of the remoteness of objects, not only the accommodation of the lens and the relative position of the visual axes are essential, but also linear and aerial perspective. The receding lines seem to converge at the horizon. Linear perspective is enhanced by the weakening of the difference between light and shadow, the loss of individual small details. Aerial perspective consists in some change in the color of objects under the influence of a bluish tint in the air. The spatial perspective is also determined by the texture density gradient of objects (Fig. 40).

The definition of the depth of space is limited deep vision threshold

Essential for the perception of the remoteness of objects is the comparison of their size with the known size of other objects. This is of particular importance in cases where objects are more than 450 m away (the limiting distance about which information is received as a result of the relative position of the visual axes). The distance from which objects are recognized is called spatial discrimination threshold(see tables below).

Rice. 40. Determining the extent of an object in depth is carried out by the density gradient of its texture.

Spatial thresholds of perception of individual
objects:

Rice. 41. Threshold of deep vision - the minimum difference in the distance of two objects, perceived by the observer. Quantitatively, the depth vision threshold is expressed as the difference between the corresponding parallactic angles. Most people have a Depth Vision Threshold of 5* (five arcseconds).

Spatial thresholds for distinguishing elements of a person's appearance:

The spatial movement of objects, their movement is perceived due to the movement of their image on the retina. For the perception of movement, the movement of the eye and head is also essential. When assessing the speed of movement, a correction is made for the distance of the moving object. Motion Perception Threshold equal to 5 ang. min/sec, which corresponds to the limiting speed of the tracking eye. The direction of movement of an object is determined by the change in its position relative to other objects, as well as by the mechanism of paired eyes (Fig. 42).

Rice. 42. Paired work of the eyes is one of the mechanisms that ensure the perception of the direction of movement of objects.

The ability to correctly evaluate the spatial relationships of objects is called eye gauge. There are static and dynamic eye gauges:

Static eye - determination of the size of stationary objects, their remoteness and the distances between them by a stationary observer;

Dynamic eye - the ability to determine the relationship between moving objects.

There are significant individual features of the eye.

The ability to see the smallest objects is called visual acuity or resolving power of the eye. Visual acuity is equal to one (it is normal) if a person distinguishes objects with an angular size of 1 min (people with normal vision distinguish objects with a size of 3 cm at a distance of 100 m). Visual acuity depends on the preliminary acquaintance with the object, on the expectation of it in the field of view, color, contrast between the object and the background, the duration of the visual stimulus. Visual acuity decreases with increasing angular velocity of the object.

In its genesis, visual perceptions are associated with touch.

Touch is one of the main sources of our spatial representations. (At one time it was even believed that the hand teaches the eye to see. Subsequently, however, this was refuted by experimental data.) The groping movements of the hands reproduce the contour of the object, as if taking a cast from it.

Distinguish between passive and active touch:

Passive touch forms a tactile image of the contour of an object when it is moved on a resting hand;

Active touch is characterized by active palpation of an object.

Bimanual touch - touch with two hands - optimizes the strategy of perception. At the same time, the functions of the hands are separated; the left hand (for right-handed people) performs the function of a support and a reference point.

Perception of time- a reflection of the duration, speed and sequence of phenomena. Temporal relationships are reflected through:

chronometry- counting time, measured using the uniform movement of objects (clock hands);

chronology- reflections of time in accordance with common events for all (seasons, historical events);

chronognosia- subjective time (subjective experience of the duration of events depending on their significance and emotional coloring).

When evaluating the time intervals and duration of events, one should take into account the peculiarities of the subjective perception of time. With positive emotions, time is underestimated, and with negative emotions, time is overestimated. The underestimation of time is always the result of the dominance of excitation over inhibition. The exaggeration of time is associated with the predominance of inhibition, which occurs as a result of the influence of monotonous, insignificant stimuli. Under the same conditions of activity, time less than 1 minute is usually exaggerated, and time more than 5-10 minutes is underestimated.

The whole complex of analyzers is involved in the reflection of time. However, time intervals are differentiated to the greatest extent by kinesthetic and auditory analyzers. So, if the discontinuity of visual influences differs at intervals between them up to 1/20 sec, then the discontinuity of tactile influences differs at intervals of 1/40 sec, and of sound influences - at intervals of 1/100 sec.

The period of time is estimated more accurately when making movements and when perceiving auditory influences. In this case, an involuntary motor and sound accompaniment appears, activating the process of time perception.

In activities associated with the establishment of time intervals, a person achieves a great development of the "sense" of time. The perception of time is disturbed in extreme states (stress, affect, frustration), with prolonged sensory deprivation, alcohol and drug toxicity.

Perception, man by man.

Rice. 43. Probability of differences in face elements at low exposures.

Rice. 44. Probability of the supporting role of facial elements during identification.

As an object of perception, a person is distinguished by a special social significance. When perceiving a new person for himself, the subject highlights in him those features of his appearance, which provide information about mental and social qualities. Posture, gait, gestures, facial expressions, voice, speech, behavioral habits, manners, and clothes stand out in particular. One of the first places is occupied by the professional characteristics of a person, his social status and basic moral and communicative qualities: evil, kind, cheerful, reserved, sociable, etc. Individual elements, features of the face and head are selected selectively and are identified with varying accuracy (Fig. 43 , 44).

Personality features in her appearance are interpreted different ways:

emotional- social qualities are attributed to an individual depending on the aesthetic appeal of his appearance (outwardly beautiful person interpreted as a good person);

analytical- each of the elements of appearance is associated with a specific mental property of a person (pursed lips, furrowed eyebrows - an evil person, etc.);

perceptual-associative- the qualities of another person outwardly similar to him are attributed to a person;

social-associative- a person is given the qualities of a certain social type according to individual characteristic outward signs(with glasses and a hat - an intellectual; in an overcoat - a military man).

The generalized image of a person that has arisen from external signs affects the interaction with this person.

The perception of a person by a person is subject to certain socially formed stereotypes, standards, standards. The general impression of a person, an idea of ​​his social status are transferred to all private manifestations of a given personality (""). Initially perceived information about a person may have a dominant value (“primacy effect”).

Significant differences in social status communicating give rise to the “social distance effect”. The extreme manifestation of this effect is expressed in neglect and hatred towards representatives of other social groups.

Estimates and feelings of people in their perception of each other are multifaceted. But they are mainly divided into conjunctival- uniting and disjunctive- separating. Disjunctive feelings are caused by what is condemned in the given environment.

A.A. Bodalev made the following experiment. Two groups of people were shown the same photograph and asked to describe the person in the photograph. One group was told that they would see a portrait of a hero, while the other group was warned that they would see a picture of a criminal.

It turned out that the subjects in their assessments were within the power of the stereotype, the attitude. Here is a verbal portrait given by a person who believed that he had an image of a hero in front of him: “A young man of 25-30 years old. A strong-willed, courageous face, with regular features. The look is very expressive. His hair is disheveled, not shaved, the collar of his shirt is unbuttoned. Apparently, this is the hero of some kind of fight, although he does not have a military uniform.

The subject, who believed that he was facing a portrait of a criminal, gave the following verbal description: “This beast wants to understand something. Cleverly looks and without interruption. Standard chin, bags under the eyes, a massive, aging figure, thrown forward ... "

Depending on the importance people attach to various features of the external image of a person, they perceive each other differently.

Perception oral speech.

From a physical point of view, speech is a combination of sounds that varies in frequency and intensity.

The maximum intelligibility of oral speech occurs at a speech intensity of 40 dB. At a speech intensity of 10 dB, speech sounds are not perceived as related words. For satisfactory transmission of speech messages in noisy conditions, the sound intensity of speech should be 10 dB higher than the noise level. Speech is especially muffled by low-frequency noise.

Speech intelligibility increases with visual control of speakers, the vocabulary of speech familiar to listeners, significant intensity of speech, repetition of complex phrases in their original form.

The optimal rate of speech is 70 words per minute; the upper limit is 120 words per minute.

As a socially conditioned phenomenon of speech perception is gnostic process- the process of determining the meaning and meaning of perceived speech structures; this process is characterized by different levels of recognition and discrimination. In the perception of oral speech, there are sensory, perceptual and semantic levels.

Depending on the formation of the process of perception of oral speech can be successive(expanded) and simultaneous(collapsed).

The perception of oral speech is accompanied by probabilistic forecasting. Long words are understood and recognized better than short ones. The length of the phrase should not exceed 7 ± 2 words. The most significant words should be placed in the first third of the phrase. At the beginning of standard phrases, the listener predicts the phrase as a whole. The level and depth of speech prediction depend on the listener's speech culture.

The semantic perception of a speech message also depends on its situational involvement, logical and semantic structure, the length and depth of phrases, their communicative significance, the listener's orientation and the level of his mental development.

Perception by a person of the environment around him.

The human environment is perceived by him as a whole, and not as a set of isolated objects. This environment is considered by a person as a field of his life activity.

The place of permanent residence is a psychological center for a person, an arena of his activity, a source of certain mental states. (Psychologist William Sheldon even distinguishes special psychological types of people depending on their mental interaction with the environment. ectomorphic type perceives the environment depending on the mood. mesomorphic type perceives the environment as an object of mastery - travelers, climbers, entrepreneurs. Endomorphic type perceives the environment as a lyrical object - poets, artists.)

The environment dictates a person a certain way of behavior, activates and inhibits his motor reactions, creates a certain mood. The human environment evokes in him an aesthetic reaction, intimate associations.

The aesthetic and organization of the human environment is a sign of culture, civilization, and the psychological competence of society.

Rice. 45. The proportionality of the human body.

different peoples in different times develop their own aesthetic standards. However, there are general psychological norms of beauty. Beautiful is what is harmonious, and harmonious is what optimizes the process of perception. The human body itself is beautiful, harmonious and proportionate (Fig. 45).

Greek word harmony means harmony, proportionality, balance of parts of the whole. Parts of a harmonious object are subdivided, subordinated, ordered in such a way that they provide a certain focus of attention. An object is convenient for perception if it has a certain functional and structural organization.

In works of art, the proportional ratio of the so-called " golden section"- the smaller part is related to the larger one as the larger one is to the whole (approximately 3:5, 5:8; more precisely - 100:161). The positive effect of stimuli in this ratio was empirically discovered in ancient times. The use of the "golden section" proportion in architecture, sculpture, painting, music (intervals in sound time, the ratio of sounds to height) contributes to the integrity of perception, gives the object harmony (an ordinary box looks beautiful if its dimensions have the "golden section" ratio).

A harmonious object is distinguished by the balance of its elements, the optimal distribution of optical masses, the symmetry and rhythm of the arrangement of its parts.

Rhythm is used to avoid monotony, to maintain the activity of perception. For this purpose, rhythmic changes in the spatial extent of the elements of the object, in the distances between them, the alternation of their tonality, configuration (alternation of thickening and thinning, convexity and concavity, etc.) are used.

When perceiving an object, the weight of its parts is subconsciously interpreted. This interpretation depends on the location of the elements of objects in relation to its vertical and horizontal axes. In the center of the composition, the element weighs less (although it has a greater significance), and at the edges - more. It is no coincidence that in the paintings of outstanding masters of painting, the figures located in the center are made heavier by various pictorial techniques (more “heavy” color, larger size, etc.). Elements of an object located at the top of the object look heavier than those at the bottom. Elements on the right look heavier than those on the left. (Look at Raphael's painting "The Sistine Madonna". The figure of the monk on the left side of the picture is depicted larger than the figure of the woman on the right side of the picture - this balance is achieved throughout the composition.)

The weight interpretation of the elements of an object depends not only on the size, but also on their color. The most "heavy" are red and other colors of the long-wavelength part of the spectrum.

The visual system is dominated by vertical orientation. The vertical line is the base to which the relative position of the parts of the object is attached. With the vertical arrangement of the object, its symmetrical balance is evaluated. Depending on the function of the object, it is given different symmetry:

absolute- repetition of elements in the left and right parts;

relative- repetition of only individual homogeneous elements.

Harmonious object- an object whose content is expressed simply. The simplicity of an object does not mean its primitive simplification, but the clear definiteness, conciseness, completeness and clear unity of its elements. This kind of simplicity is the main virtue of a genuine work of art.

Under simplicity of composition one should not understand the limited diversity of its elements. An object with more detail may be simpler than an object with less detail. (Thus, a square with its four sides is a simpler figure than a triangle. The great simplicity of a square lies in the equality of its angles and sides, in the equal distance of the sides from the center and their symmetry with respect to the horizontal and vertical axes.) The simplicity of an object is determined not so much by its limited details, how many limited number of structural features. An object is simple, concise, if its complex content is covered by a minimum number of structural features.

The aesthetic impression of the object is enhanced if it emphasizes the natural color and texture of the materials used. The combination of the same colors of different saturation enhances the impression of the plasticity of the object. Color division should correspond to functional division. It is advisable to unite functionally homogeneous elements with one color. The dissection of the object, the contrast of its elements should not impede the synthetic side of perception.

The harmonious organization of the objective environment is the avoidance of dullness, dullness, colorlessness and disorder - all that has recently come to be called an aggressive environment.

Human life should be carried out in an aesthetic, functionally organized, ergonomic environment.

Individual differences in perception.

Life experience, knowledge, interests, the level of mental development determine the individual characteristics of perception - its completeness and accuracy. Representatives of the synthetic type of perception have greater integrity and emotionality of perception. Representatives analytical type show a great propensity to isolate and explain individual aspects of the object. The most common is the average analytic-synthetic type of perception.

People with insufficient development of differentiation activity are characterized by incompleteness and inaccuracy of perception. It is often supplemented by subjective additions, especially in situations of heightened emotionality. A person's susceptibility to inert stereotypes has a significant impact on perception. Incompleteness of experience and knowledge causes fragmentation of perception, insufficient meaningfulness and integrity of perception.

Perceiving objects and phenomena, a person evaluates them. Curiosity, inquisitiveness, analyticity are expressed in his observation- the ability to perceive subtle essential features of phenomena (Fig. 46).

Rice. 46. ​​The ability to productive observation is called observation. In this drawing, the mark on each hand is left by one specific object. What?

Perception is otherwise called perception (from Latin percepcio - I perceive), and the processes of perception are called perceptual processes.

The American neurophysiologist J. Pittigrew discovered cortical neurons of disparity (from Latin disparatis - separate). These neurons have two receptive fields - they are excited only when the image hits both zeros at once. This explains the fact that when an object is perceived with one eye, the effect of stereoscopicity occurs.

The effect of the movement of an object can also occur if, at short intervals, different phases of the object are perceived - the stroboscopic effect. So, when perceiving a film, when 24 frames with a still image are replaced in one second, the effect of movement occurs.

Bodalev A.A. Perception and understanding of man by man. M., 1989.

This role of the vertical is due to the vertically directed force of gravity that constantly acts on all living organisms.

Hello dear readers!
We are glad to welcome you to the educational service and hope that we can answer all your questions. Have you looked at our site in order to find out what patterns of perception (perception) exist? I look forward to your expert opinion.

At the beginning, I would like to note that the subject of psychology is very complex and for the most profound understanding of it, it is necessary, first of all, to decide what lies in the foundation. PSYCHOLOGY is a science that studies the patterns of emergence, development, and functioning of the human psyche, as well as a group of people. After we have clarified the main provisions of what psychology studies, we can proceed to consider the following terms: PERSONALITY, SOCIETY, PERCEPTION.

PERSONALITY- this is a relatively stable holistic system of intellectual, moral-volitional and socio-cultural qualities of a person, expressed in individual characteristics his consciousness and activity. SOCIETY is a form of association of people with common interests, values ​​and goals. PERCEPTION is a sensory knowledge of the objects of the surrounding world, subjectively presented as direct.

What are the main patterns of perception? To begin with, let's note that perception is a holistic mental image, detailed, specific, detailed (that is, sensual). The image of perception is not just the sum of sensations, although they are included in its composition. It is a meaningful and mediated process.

It is also worth noting that perception can be considered based on the following patterns:

1. Meaningfulness, which lies primarily in what a person understands, perceives, it is closely connected with thinking, as well as with the use of past experience;
2. visual object. Perception is manifested in the attribution of images to certain objects or phenomena, and in addition, a person perceives objects that are significant;
3. Structurality. A person perceives a structure generalized from these sensations;
4. Constancy, namely the constancy of the shape, size and color of an object in changing conditions.

It can be added that perception object depends not only on the size of the retina, but also from the phenomenon of accommodation (a change in the curvature of the lens depending on the distance of the object, what is close - the lens becomes convex, further - flatter). I believe that you learned what patterns of perception exist in psychology. If something remains incomprehensible from this topic, you can always ask a question that interests you.
We wish you good luck and success in your work and studies!

Different types of perception have their own specific patterns. Along with them, there are general patterns of perception: integrity, constancy, objectivity, structure, meaningfulness and generality, selectivity, apperception.

Integrity of perception- a property of perception, consisting in the fact that any object or spatial subject situation is perceived as a stable systemic whole. Due to the integrity of perception, there is an internal organic interconnection of parts and the whole in the image. This property in the process of perception is manifested in two aspects: a) the unification of different elements as a whole; b) the independence of the formed whole as its constituent elements.

The integrity of perception is expressed in the fact that the image of perceived objects is not given in a completely finished form with all the necessary elements, but, as it were, is mentally completed to some integral form on the basis of small set elements. This also happens if some details of an object are not perceived by a person directly at a given moment in time.

Even in those cases when we do not perceive some signs of a familiar object, we mentally supplement them (Fig. 15). We strive to unite the individual parts of the object into a single holistic formation familiar to us.

Rice. 16. Integrity of perception based on inclusion

object in a certain situation

The formation of the image of the subject is necessarily based on the knowledge and practical experience that a person has. This is confirmed by the perception of images with incomplete contours. So, for example, according to an unfinished drawing (Fig. 17), one can recognize a border guard with a dog, but only if the person has an idea about their appearance. To evoke these ideas in an adult, it is enough to name the painting (“Border Guard with a Dog”). For a child of 3-5 years old, the perception of this picture is difficult: he will see individual spots and strokes, but will not notice the whole, namely the border guard with a dog.

In some cases, the integrity of perception can be violated, in particular, due to the inconsistency of the elements of the object of perception, which is shown in Fig. eighteen.

constancy- this is the relative constancy of the perception of the image. Our perception, within certain limits, preserves their size, shape and color for the parameters, regardless of the conditions of perception (distance to the perceived object, lighting conditions, angle of perception).

The image of the size of an object on the retina will be different when perceived from close and far distances. As shown in Fig. 19, of two objects of the same size, the more distant one produces a smaller image on the retina. Moreover, this does not affect an adequate estimate of the actual value. What we have said is interpreted by us as the remoteness or proximity of the object. To the greatest extent, constancy is observed in the visual perception of the color, size and shape of objects.

Fig.19. Constancy of perception

When perceiving a rectangular object (for example, a sheet of paper) from different points of view, a square, a rhombus, and even a straight line can be displayed on the retina. However, in all cases, we retain the form inherent in this object. A white sheet of paper, regardless of its illumination, will be perceived as a white sheet.

The constancy of perception is not a hereditary quality, it is formed in experience, in the process of learning. Perception does not always give an absolutely correct idea of ​​the objects of the surrounding world and may be illusory or erroneous.

Objectivity of perception means adequacy, correspondence of images of perception to real objects of reality. Due to the objectivity of perception, the object is perceived by us as a separate physical body isolated in space and time.

A person realizes mental images of objects not as images, but as real objects, bringing images outside, objectifying them. So, for example, imagining a forest, we are aware that our representation is an image that has arisen in the mind, and not a real forest, because we are currently in a room, not in a forest.

The objectivity of perception is most clearly manifested in the mutual isolation of the figure and the background. In familiar situations, we do not pay much attention to this, but the first thing to do when perceiving some visual information is to decide what to consider as a figure and what as a background. There are some features of visual stimulation that in themselves help the perceptual system to distinguish figure from background. Usually the background includes a figure, it contains less details and distinctive features compared to figure. Let us turn to Fig. 1 for an example. 20 and 21.

In the fig. In this case, we have no doubts about where the figure is and where the background is.

On fig. 21 a dual perception is possible: a vase or two faces. One of you will see the white vase shown in the picture on a dark background, the other will see two face profiles on a white background. This means that for some, the white vase turned out to be a figure of perception, and the black profiles - its background, for others - vice versa. Thus, there is a reciprocal relationship between the figure and the background of perception. It helps to highlight the figure of perception by a preliminary target setting for a specific object: a vase or a face. With a target installation on a vase, you can easily see a vase on a light background, and two faces on a dark one.

Structural perception - the property of human perception to combine influencing stimuli into holistic and relatively simple structures. Perception is not a simple sum of sensations. We perceive a generalized structure actually abstracted from the received sensations. For example, when listening to music, not individual sounds are perceived, but a melody. Moreover, we recognize a specific melody regardless of whether it is performed by an orchestra, or on the piano, or by a human voice, although individual sound sensations are different.

In the process of perception, the relationship of parts and sides of objects is singled out. We recognize various objects due to the stable structure of their features, reflecting stable relationships between the elements of the perceived object as a whole, for example, as shown in Fig. 22.

Despite the different nature of the writing of the letter "B", we adequately recognize and perceive it due to the stable structure of the features inherent in this letter.

In cases where it is difficult to identify the structure of an object, the perception of the object as a whole is also difficult. This is observed, for example, in the perception of "impossible figures", when the structure of perception can be broken. So, the elephant shown in Fig. 23 can be drawn, but cannot be perceived as an image of a real object. Due to the contradictory structure of the object, a meaningful perception of the elephant as a whole is also difficult.

Meaningfulness of perception is determined by understanding the connection between the essence of objects and phenomena through the process of thinking. Meaningfulness of perception is achieved by mental activity in the process of perception. We comprehend any perceived phenomenon from the point of view of already existing knowledge, accumulated experience. This makes it possible to include new knowledge in the system of previously formed ones.

The meaningfulness of perception is carried out through the language acquired by a person from childhood. Perceiving objects and phenomena of the world around us, a person names them and thereby refers to certain categories of objects: animals, plants, pieces of furniture, events public life etc. This manifests itself categoricality human perception.

The semantic assessment of the object of perception can occur instantly, without deliberation. This is observed when perceiving very well-known things, facts, situations. When perceiving unfamiliar objects, the time increases. Perception, being meaningful, is also generalized. Every word generalises. Calling the perceived object a familiar word, a person thereby realizes it as a special case of the general. Looking at a pine tree and calling this tree a pine tree, we thereby note the signs not only of this particular pine tree (tall, slender, standing by the road, etc.), but also of a pine tree in general, even as a tree.

The degree of generalization of perception can be different, depending on the depth of our knowledge about the subject. Thanks to the meaningfulness and generalization of perception, we conjecture and complete the image of the object according to its individual fragments, as shown in the example of the Penrose triangle (Fig. 24).

Rice. 24. Penrose triangle.

Element by element at the top - everything is correct, but meaningfulness with a holistic perception allows you to establish the unreality of the triangle depicted below

In addition, the meaningfulness of perception eliminates some visual illusions, as shown, for example, in Fig. 25. Having mentally drawn a plane coinciding with the line, we see that the line is one, and not several, and that it is continuous.

Meaningfulness of perception manifests itself in recognition . Learn the subject means to perceive it in relation to the previously formed image. Recognition is based on the operation of comparing the present impression with the corresponding traces of memory. This is clearly seen in Fig. 26. Despite the fact that the two sides of the triangle are discontinuous, we perceive it as a complete figure. The effect of closure as a principle of perceptual grouping also appears here.

Recognition is characterized by certainty, accuracy and speed. Some objects well known to us, for example, the figure of a cat, we recognize immediately and accurately, even with quick and incomplete perception (Fig. 27).

When recognizing, a person often does not highlight all the features of an object, but uses its characteristic identification features. So, submarine we recognize it by its characteristic silhouette with a cabin and do not mix it with an ordinary boat or ship. A characteristic feature of a yacht is a sail, etc.

Recognition can be generalized when the item belongs to some general category (for example, "this is a table", "this is a car", a truck, etc.), and differentiated (specific) when the perceived object is identified with a previously perceived single object. This is a higher level of recognition. For this kind of recognition, it is necessary to highlight features specific to a given object - it will accept it. For example, a bus with a low level of the floor of the Minsk Automobile Plant "MAZ-103".

Recognition is hampered by insufficient identification features. For example, in fig. 28 shows a dog in a fragmentary way, which makes it difficult to recognize. In this case, insufficiency or sufficiency of identification features for the perception of this image of a dog is possible.

The minimum of signs necessary for the identification of an object is called threshold of perception.

Perception largely depends on the purpose and objectives of the activity. In an object, those aspects of it that correspond to a given task come to the fore.

Selectivity- preferential selection of some objects over others in the process of perception. Most often, the selectivity of perception is manifested in the predominant selection of the object from the background. In this case, the background performs the function of a reference system, relative to which the spatial and color qualities of the figure are realized.

The object stands out from the background along its outline. The sharper, more contrast the contour of the object, the easier it is to select it. On the contrary, when the contours of the object are blurred, inscribed in the lines of the background, the object is difficult to distinguish. This is what disguise is based on. military equipment when, for example, a very characteristic silhouette of a tank is hidden by a camouflage net. As a result, it "merges" with the surrounding area.

Another manifestation of selectivity is the selection of some objects in comparison with others. What is in the center of human attention during perception is called the figure, and everything else is called the background.

Selective perception is accompanied by centering of perception . With the equivalence of objects, the central object or the larger object is predominantly distinguished (Fig. 29). Other examples of centralization of perception are also possible.

In those cases where the configuration is formed by two distinct and homogeneous elements, neither of which is included in the other and which, moreover, have common boundaries, both elements can be perceived as figures with equal probability. Therefore, different interpretations of their relationship are possible. This phenomenon has received the name - dual perception of the "figure - background" connection (Fig. 30 and 31). When looking at such ambiguous drawings, usually at the very beginning one of the elements is perceived as a figure, but soon it then begins to appear as a background.

The selectivity of perception depends both on the objective objects that are perceived, and on the subjective attitude to which elements of the object are recognized as basic. Depending on this, you can see in Fig. 30 one, two or three faces - a young or old woman, or maybe a man in a beret.

The subject and background of perception are dynamic. The dynamism of the relationship between the subject and the background is explained by the switching of attention from one object to another. What was the subject of perception may, due to immobility or at the end of the work, merge with the background. Something from the background can become an object of perception for a certain time, and vice versa. So, for example, in Fig. 31 it is difficult to answer the question, where is the figure and where is the background. In one case you see a man playing the saxophone, and in the other you see a woman's face.

The selection of an object from the surrounding reality is due to its significance for a given person. The device of some complex mechanism will be perceived differently by an experienced design engineer or a student interested in technology, or just a curious person.

Apperception

Apperception. The dependence of perception on experience, knowledge, interests and attitudes of the individual is called apperception . Particularly noteworthy is the role professional activity in terms of individual perception. The conditionality of perception by knowledge, past experience, professional orientation is manifested in the selectivity of perception of various aspects of the objects shown in Fig. 32.

Distinguish personal (sustainable) and situational (temporary) apperception. Personal apperception determines the dependence of perception on stable personality traits - education, beliefs, etc. situational apperception is temporary, it affects situationally arising mental states, for example, emotions, attitudes, etc. So, for example, at night in a forest, a stump can be perceived by a person as a figure of an animal and contribute to the appearance of appropriate emotions in him.

Illusions

Illusion- this is a distorted perception of a real-life reality. Illusions are found in the activities of various analyzers. The best known are visual illusions that have a variety of causes: practical experience, features of analyzers, changes in familiar conditions.

Most visual illusions can be classified into the following groups:

• illusions associated with the structural features of the eye;
• the ratio of "part" and "whole";
• revaluation of vertical lines;
• exaggeration of sharp corners;
• changing terrain and perspective.

For example, the human visual system is dominated by a vertical orientation. The vertical line is the base to which the relative position of the parts of the object is attached. Due to the fact that vertical eye movements require more effort than horizontal movements, there is an illusion of perception of lines of the same length, located differently: it seems to us that the vertical lines are longer than the horizontal ones.

If you ask a group of people to split a vertical line in half, most of them will do it "in favor" of the top line.

On fig. 33 on the left shows a cylinder whose vertical dimensions are re-evaluated, since in reality the height of the cylinder and the width of its margins are the same, and on the right the re-estimation of the length of the vertical line relative to the horizontal one is shown. In reality, the dimensions of both lines are the same.

Parallel lines are bent for the same reason (Fig. 34), and identical figures on a smaller field appear large (Fig. 35).

Other causes of visual illusions are also possible. So, for example, in Fig. 36 shows the "wonderful transformations" of a small cylinder (

Perception- the mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena in a holistic form as a result of awareness of their distinctive features. It is associated with the identification, understanding and comprehension of objects and their assignment to a certain category. Perception is a holistic mental image, detailed concrete, detailed (sensory). The image of perception is not just the sum of sensations, although they are included in its composition. It is a meaningful and mediated process. The process of perception always includes motor components (feeling objects and moving the eyes when perceiving specific objects; singing or pronouncing sounds when perceiving speech). The result of this perceiving activity is a holistic view of the subject that we encounter in real life. FROM practical point vision, the main function of perception is to ensure the recognition of objects, that is, their assignment to one category or another.

Types of Perceptions: 1. by modality: visual, auditory, tactile; 2. it is distinguished depending on the specifics of the object of reflection: the perception of the size and shape of the object, the perception of speech and the perception of a person by a person; 3. depending on goal setting: involuntary and voluntary (arbitrariness means the goal and volitional regulation in order to keep the goal. For us: Results: Perception is a holistic mental image, detailed concrete, detailed (sensual); Memory - representations, that is, it appears generalization due to the selection of the most essential features; Thinking-inferences, concepts, judgments (there are very few sensory elements in concepts, and in abstract concepts there are none at all, eg: how to present the concept of the psyche).

Patterns of Perception: 1. meaningfulness, the cat lies in the fact that people understand, perceive, it is closely connected with thinking and also with the use of past experience; 2. the objectivity of Perception is manifested in the attribution of images B to certain objects or phenomena, and in addition, people perceive objects that have a certain meaning; 3. Structurality - In is not just the sum of sensations. A person perceives a structure generalized from these sensations; 4. constancy - constancy B of the shape, size and color of an object in changing conditions. Thanks to this property of Perception, a person lives in a world of permanent things (constant - you look down from an airplane and the outline of the earth is changed).

Perception Properties: 1. apperception - the impact of past experience on the process of perception (wheel or sambrero); 2. selectivity - is manifested in the preferential selection of some objects in comparison with others; 3. integrity - in process B, a holistic image of the object always arises and stable connections between the components are reflected in the created mental image (if we see some parts, we always complete the holistic image). For us: Allocate complex types of Perception - space and time and movement. Perception of space consists of the Perception of size, shape, volume, distance and their movement. The perception of remoteness and volume of objects is carried out due to binocular vision (two eyes). The perception of an object depends not only on the magnitude on the retina, but also on the phenomenon of accommodation (a change in the curvature of the lens depending on the distance of the object, what is close - the lens becomes convex, further - flatter). When perceiving objects more than 6 m distant, an important role is played by the location of the visual axes, as well as a comparison of the size of a distant object with the size of a familiar object. The perception of the size and shape of an object occurs due to visual, tactile and motor sensations. When Perceiving the relief, aerial (air density) and linear (lines going into the distance - rails) perspectives - illusions play a role. Movement perception: carried out due to the movement of the eyes and head, and in addition, the spatial movement of objects is perceived from their distance and speed of movement. A person does not perceive very slow movements and judges them by indirect signs - the hands on the clock: the second one is clearly visible, the minute one can also be seen, but the hour hand is not. The perception of movement is also influenced by: the speed of movement and the distance of the object (the farther the object, the less its speed seems to be - the plane is in the sky). The perception of time is a reflection of the duration, speed and sequence of the phenomenon, so the duration of small periods of time, as a rule, increases, and large intervals of time somewhat decrease. A fast pace leads to an exaggeration of time, a slow pace to an underestimation of time (if the period of time is full of interesting events, then it flies faster). The perception of time is associated with certain cyclical phenomena: time of day, seasons (winter lasts a long time).

Illusions of Perception: 1. light seems more dark - this is due to the optical properties of our eyes and are physiological; 2. the sun and moon at the horizon seem 2.5 - 3 times larger than at the zenith - a psychological illusion; 3. integrity of perception, three unfinished lines and even three points - are perceived as a triangle.

Parameter name	Meaning
Article subject:	General patterns of perception
Rubric (thematic category)	Psychology

There are general patterns of perception that are characteristic of all species, namely: 1) meaningfulness and generalization; 2) integrity; 3) structure; 4) selective orientation; 5) apperception; 6) constancy; 7) activity; 8) historicity; 9) objectivity.

1. Meaningfulness and generalization of perception. Perception differs from sensation in that it is connected with the understanding of an object and designating it with a word. When perceiving an object, those of its qualities that correspond to the task in hand, or are familiar from past experience, come to the fore.

The simplest form of object perception is recognition, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ suggests its correlation with the previously formed image. Recognition should be generalized when the object belongs to some general category (for example, this is a car), and differentiated (specific), when the perceived object is identified with a specific familiar object (for example, this is an Audi-100 neighbor from apartment 36 ). Differentiated recognition is a higher level, involving the selection of features that are characteristic of this particular object.

Supreme form perception is meaningful perception. In this case, it is customary to understand the essence of an object or phenomenon, the functions it performs.

2. Integrity of perception. Human perception is holistic, ᴛ.ᴇ. covers a set of features, their relationship to each other. The missing characteristics are completed by the imagination. Many children love to look at the clouds and see meaningful shapes, ᴛ.ᴇ. several features of the object are complemented to a holistic image.

3. Structural perception. We recognize various objects due to the stable structure of their features. For example, an apple should be round green, yellow, or red. If, however, with the help of a knife to give it the shape of a pyramid and paint it blue, then it will be impossible to recognize it.

4. Selective orientation of perception. At every moment of time, a person sees, hears, touches and smells many things, but from this stream of sensations, only what attention is directed to is meaningfully perceived. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the necessary object becomes a figure in the background. The selection of an object from the background is carried out along its contour. A sharper outline makes it easier to reproduce, a more blurry one makes it more difficult (this is the basis of masking).

5. Apperception(from Latin ʼʼadʼʼ - to; ʼʼperceptioʼʼ - perception). Apperception is usually called the dependence of perception on experience, knowledge, interests and attitudes of the individual. When a person looks at a slice of lemon, he involuntarily salivates, as if he felt its sour taste on his tongue. Very often, the perception of an object is accompanied by an individual emotional coloring based on past experience. One will look with delight at the brand new Mercedes - the ultimate of his dreams, and the other will begin to feverish memories of a recent car accident.

6. Constancy of perception. When we are dealing not with an experiment, but with real life, the objects of the surrounding world usually do not retain their characteristics necessary for perception. But nevertheless, we recognize objects, regardless of their size, distance, and sounds, regardless of tempo or pitch. An example of constancy is a door that retains its shape to our eyes whether it is closed or open.

7. Activity. The more participation the body takes in familiarizing itself with the object, the more integral created image. For example, some teachers elementary school when teaching children the alphabet, they do not just write letters on the board, but let them touch the letters cut out of sandpaper in order to use three analyzers (visual, auditory and tactile).

8. Historicity. The process of perception is directly dependent on the past experience of the subject and on his practice in this area. The faculty of some sort of perception must be developed through exercise.

In the course of social contacts, the child gradually learns sensory standards: phonemes of the native language, geometric figures, colors, musical sounds, etc. Result individual activities according to the assimilation of sensory standards, it is customary to call a person operational units of perception.

9. Objectivity. The objectivity of perception is usually understood as the ability of a person to perceive not a set of disparate sensations coming from external environment, but individual objects that cause these sensations. The objectivity of perception appears in the form of integrity, constancy and meaningfulness of the perceptual image.

General patterns of perception - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "General patterns of perception" 2017, 2018.