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Purposeful systematic perception of phenomena. Observation is a purposeful perception of the real world, an object or phenomenon in a natural environment. System of general scientific methods

The answers to tasks 1–20 are a number, or a sequence of numbers, or a word (phrase). Write your answers in the fields to the right of the task number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.

Write down the missing word in the table.

Characteristics of methods of cognition

In the given series, find the concept that is generalizing for all the other concepts presented. Write down this word (phrase).

Reform; revolution; social dynamics; evolution; social regression.

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to the concept of "social control".

1) remark, 2) sanction, 3) social norm, 4) political ideology, 5) condemnation, 6) material culture.

Find two terms that "fall out" of the general series, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Choose the correct judgments about the activity and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Activities are related to meeting the needs of a person, a social group, society as a whole.

2. Creative activity is inherent in both man and animal.

3. As a result of labor activity, material and spiritual values are created.

4. The same type of activity can be called with different motives of people.

5. The structure of activity implies the existence of a goal and means to achieve it.

Establish a correspondence between the distinctive features and types of societies: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Artyom and Igor Chaika wrote a book about corruption. On what grounds can the content of the book be classified as scientific knowledge? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. All conclusions are theoretically substantiated.

2. The book is difficult for independent study by a non-professional.

4. Evidence is given to confirm the truth of the hypotheses.

5. The book was printed by a major publishing house.

6. The entire circulation of the book was sold out within one month.

Choose the correct judgments about securities and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The action is a certificate of a cash deposit in a bank with the bank's obligation to return this deposit and interest on it after a specified period.

2. A security certifying ownership of a share in the capital of an enterprise and giving the right to receive part of the enterprise's profit is called a share.

3. Securities are registered and bearer.

4. The bill gives its owner the right to participate in the management of the company and receive dividends.

5. The bond gives the owner the right to demand its redemption on time.

Boris Mikhailovich owns car and land and periodically pays the appropriate taxes. Establish a correspondence between examples and elements of the tax structure: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

The owner of the company draws up a business plan for the development of his enterprise. Which of the following can be used as external sources business financing? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. improvement production technologies

2. issue and placement of shares of the enterprise

3. Increasing productivity

4. income from the sale of the company's products

5. attracting loans

6. tax deductions

Choose the correct judgments about social stratification and write down the numbers under which they are indicated

1. The concept of "social stratification" refers to any changes taking place in society.

2. Social stratification involves the division of society into social strata by combining different social positions with approximately the same social status.

3. Sociologists identify the following criteria for social stratification: income, power.

4. Social stratification involves the allocation of social strata depending on the personal qualities of a person.

5. The prestige of a profession as a criterion of social stratification is associated with social attractiveness, respect in society for certain professions, positions, occupations.

In the course of a sociological survey of 25-year-old and 50-year-old citizens of country Z, they were asked the question: "Who read books to you in childhood?" (Any number of answers). The results of the surveys (in % of the number of respondents) are shown in the diagram.

Find in the list of conclusions that can be drawn from the diagram, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The proportion of those to whom parents read books in childhood is greater among 50-year-olds than among 25-year-olds.

2. Equal shares of the respondents in each group had books read by their grandmother/grandfather in their childhood.

3. Among 25-year-olds, those to whom other relatives read books in childhood are less than those to whom kindergarten teachers read books in childhood.

4. Among 50-year-olds, those to whom grandparents read books in childhood are more than those to whom kindergarten teachers read books.

5. The proportion of those who found it difficult to answer among 50-year-olds is less than among 25-year-olds.

Select the correct judgments about political (state) regimes and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The signs of a political regime include the order of distribution of power between various social forces and political organizations expressing their interests.

2. The type of political regime is determined by the state of freedoms and human rights in society, the state of relations with the bureaucracy (bureaucratic apparatus), the dominant type of legitimacy in society.

3. The signs of a political regime include the mechanisms of power, the way of functioning government agencies, selection procedures ruling groups and political leaders.

4. The presence of a professional administrative apparatus (bureaucracy) distinguishes a totalitarian regime from a democratic one.

5. The regime of any type (kind) is characterized by the implementation of the principle of separation of powers.

Establish a correspondence between the powers and the subjects of state power of the Russian Federation exercising these powers: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Citizen A. was elected governor of region Z. He pays great attention to the protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens, the development of civil society institutions. In communication, he is friendly, open to criticism. What characteristics relate to the type of political leadership in this situation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. regional

2. nationwide

3. democratic

6. charismatic

Which of the following do you attribute to the constitutional duties of a citizen of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. choice of profession, type of activity

2. defense of the Fatherland

3. appeal to public authorities

4. participation in the elections of the President of the Russian Federation

5. conservation of nature and the environment

Choose the correct judgments about procedural law and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Branches of procedural law directly regulate social relations, they focus on establishing the rights and obligations of subjects.

2. The parties in civil proceedings are the plaintiff and the accused.

3. As a general rule, a claim is brought to the court at the place of residence of the defendant

4. Administrative jurisdiction may be exercised by judges, commissions for the affairs of minors and the protection of their rights, internal affairs bodies (police), tax authorities, customs authorities, military commissariats, etc.

5. Criminal proceedings are carried out on the basis of the adversarial nature of the parties to the prosecution and defense.

Establish a correspondence between legal forms and types legal entities: for each position given in the first column, match the corresponding position from the second column.

Leonid, a medical university graduate, found a job as a doctor. For conclusion employment contract he brought documents military registration and work book. What other documents, according to the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, should Leonid present to the employer? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. certificate of registration of ownership of the dwelling

2. insurance certificate state pension insurance

3. an extract from the financial and personal account

4. tax notice

5. passport or other identity document

6. diploma higher education

Read the text below with a number of words missing. Choose from the proposed list of words that you want to insert in place of the gaps.

“Legal responsibility is a measure of state coercion for the committed __________ (A), associated with the perpetrator undergoing certain __________ (B) of a personal (organizational) or property nature. Legal liability is one of the means to ensure __________(B). It is associated with state coercion, which is understood as __________ (D) to oblige the subject against his will and desire to perform certain actions. In the presence of the fact of an offense __________ (D) (or body) obliges a person (or organization) to undergo certain adverse consequences. Along with legal responsibility, such types of state coercion as preventive measures __________ (E), protective measures are singled out.

Words (phrases) in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can only be used once.

Choose sequentially one word (phrase) after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words (phrases) in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.

List of terms:

1. deprivation

2. possibility state

3. illegal behavior

4. public opinion

5. offense

6. guilt

7. lawful conduct

8. public danger

9. authorized person

Part 2.

First write down the task number (28, 29, etc.), and then a detailed answer to it. Write your answers clearly and legibly.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

“The ability of the state to be effective largely depends on the principles of organization of the institutions of legislative, executive and judicial power.

When forming the institutions of the state, these principles are combined in various volumes with the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. Depending on the procedure for isolating the majority of the people and whether the right of legal investment (the right to form, control and dissolve the government) belongs to either the parliament or the president, the majority principle gives rise to two institutional types of democracy - parliamentary and presidential. The legislative and executive branches of government can be organized on the principle of either a clear separation, or the absence of a strict separation of powers. The application of this principle of organizing the branches of government depends on the form of government.

The parliamentary form of the political system does not provide for a clear separation of powers. The popular majority is determined on the basis of a unified voting system - the election of deputies of parliament. The formation of the executive power is carried out indirectly: the head of government and cabinet members are elected by parliamentarians. Therefore, the separation of powers is indirectly carried out after the formation of the government. The leader who receives the support of the majority in parliament becomes the head of the executive branch. The government relies on the support of parliament, is controlled by it and is dismissed. Pluralism of interests and the rights of the minority is defended by the legally operating opposition. Great Britain provides a classic example of a parliamentary form of government. The leading role in shaping the domestic and foreign policy of the country is played by the prime minister, who has broad powers. He rules through parliament, which determines his influence.

The presidential form of political structure implies a strict separation of powers already at the election stage, provides for the legislative and executive branches of power to have their own independent electorate, therefore, in countries with a similar form of government, there is a dual voting system. The presidential republic is based on the direct election of the parliament and the head of the executive branch by the citizens through national elections. Then the president appoints members of the cabinet (government), directs its activities. He is responsible directly to the people. Dual system voting ensures equal legitimacy of the executive and legislative branches of government.

The United States is a typical example of a presidential model of democracy.

The choice of a parliamentary or presidential form of government determines the structure of the institutions of power, the technology for the implementation of the will of power. Paradoxical as it may seem, the parliamentary model strengthens the executive power, while the presidential republic strengthens the power of the parliament. In the parliamentary model, the main functions of the parliament are to form the government, control it and dissolve it. Otherwise, the influence of the legislature is limited. The powers of the government are significant, including legislative initiatives, and the possibilities of its influence are due to the support of the parliamentary majority.

In the presidential form of government, the parliament has independent powers and rules along with the president. The presidential model does not require compromise or disagreement between executive branch and parliamentary majority. The parliamentary majority can play the role of opposition to the president and thus restrain him. The situation is different in parliamentary republics: since the government is efficient only if a coalition of the parliamentary majority is created, the importance of compromises between legislators and the government is significant in the parliamentary model.

In order not to identify the executive and legislative branches of power, restraining principles were created in Western countries in the form of a system of the rule of law, in which political institutions, groups, individuals act within the framework of law, respect and obey it.

Sometimes in the literature this regime is called the regime of legal democracy. However, it seems that the differences between regimes based on majoritarian and legal principles are rather arbitrary, since Western democracies in all their varieties are a creation of law.

(R. T. Mukhaev)

Show answer

An indicator of effectiveness is indicated: the ability of the state to be effective largely depends on the principles of organization of the institutions of legislative, executive and judicial power.
Two principles are named.

Modern Western democracies are based on two principles: the majority principle, according to which power belongs to the majority of the people, and the legal principle, which means the rule of law, equal responsibility of government and citizens before the law.

Elements of the answer can be given in other formulations that are close in meaning.

Name two criteria for the formation of two types of democracy. What underlies this formation? Explain the role of the principle of separation of powers in this process.

Show answer

Criteria: "Depending on the procedure for separating the popular majority and whether the right of legal investiture (the right to form, control and dissolve the government) belongs to either the parliament or the president."
Reason: the principle of separation of powers.

Elements of the answer can be given in other formulations that are close in meaning.

There is no answer to the second question in the text, the task is aimed at attracting knowledge.

Firstly, the principle of separation of powers is the basis for the formation of democracy, as it ensures democracy through parliamentary representatives, taking into account the opinions and interests of different social groups, obstacles to the usurpation of power. Secondly, the principle of separation of powers delimits parliamentary and presidential democracies depending on the clarity of the separation of branches of power.

Formulate three features that distinguish the parliamentary form of political structure from the presidential one. Using knowledge of the constitutional structure of the Russian Federation, illustrate each difference.

Show answer

Differences between the parliamentary form and the presidential form
Each difference must be illustrated by the provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation

c) The Parliament forms the Government (in accordance with Article 111 and Article 112 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the President of the Russian Federation appoints the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation with the consent of the State Duma, the President, at the proposal of the Chairman of the Government, approves federal ministers).

Other relevant examples may be given..

What is the meaning of legal democracy? Using the text and social science knowledge, name and illustrate with an example two restraining principles of the rule of law. Show the answer

1. The meaning of the concept, for example: corpus delicti - a set of signs prescribed by law that characterize the committed act as a specific type of crime.

2. One sentence containing information about the signs of a crime, for example: The signs of a crime include public danger, wrongfulness, guilt and punishability.

(Any other proposal can be drawn up, revealing, based on the knowledge of the course, the signs of legal liability).

3. One sentence, based on the knowledge of the course, revealing the basis that excludes the presence of a crime, for example: The absence of an objective side, that is, the connection between the act and the consequences of the act, excludes the presence of a crime.

(Any other proposal can be drawn up, revealing, based on the knowledge of the course, the features of administrative responsibility).

Show answer

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) trend (according to the text of the assignment)- humanization of education:

2) other trend with corresponding characteristic, let's say:

Internationalization of education (integration of national educational systems);

Informatization of education (development of distance learning, widespread use in education information technologies and digital resources, focusing on developing students' skills in searching and analyzing a variety of information).

Other trends may be named (not according to the terms of the assignment), other characteristics are given

You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Moral standards in the system of social control." Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.

Show answer

One of the options for the disclosure plan for this topic

1. Social norms and sanctions as elements of social control.

2. Types of social norms:

a) moral;

b) legal;

c) religious;

d) etiquette, etc.

3. Features of moral standards:

a) focused on values, patterns of behavior;

b) are manifested in customs and traditions;

c) are regulated public opinion, the conscience of man;

d) are historical.

4. The structure of morality:

b) principles;

5. Morality and morality.

6. The relationship of morality and other social norms.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, interrogative or mixed forms.

By completing task 29, you can show your knowledge and skills on the content that is more attractive to you. For this purpose, choose only ONE of the statements below (29.1-29.5).

Choose one of the statements below, reveal its meaning in the form of a mini-essay, indicating, if necessary, different aspects of the problem posed by the author (the topic touched upon).

When presenting your thoughts on the problem raised (marked topic), when arguing your point of view, use the knowledge gained during the study of the social science course, the relevant concepts, as well as facts public life and own life experience. (Give at least two examples from various sources as evidence.)

29.1. Philosophy“Art illuminates and at the same time sanctifies a person’s life ...” (D.S. Likhachev)

29.2. Economy“In business and sports, too many people are afraid of competition. As a result, people avoid striving for success if it requires hard work, training and self-sacrifice.” (K. Rockne)

29.3. Sociology, social Psychology "Our social roles determined by other people's expectations. (N. Smelser)

29.4. Political science"Totalitarianism is a form of government in which morality is within the competence of the authorities." (A.N. Kruglov)

29.5. Jurisprudence"Freedom consists in being dependent only on laws." (Voltaire)

2. System general scientific methods

Observation is a purposeful, planned, systematic perception of the process of development of objects and phenomena in the form in which they exist in nature and society in natural conditions. Scientific observation is characterized by: a concept, a predetermined plan, a specific goal, the use of special tools and measuring instruments, keeping records, etc. Observation does not involve intervention in the process being studied. This shortcoming is overcome by experiment.

An experiment is a purposeful study of a phenomenon under specially created and precisely taken into account conditions, when it is possible to monitor the course of its change and actively influence it using various means. In the process of conducting an experiment, various devices, tools, special devices, and computer technology are widely used.

The experiment can be repeated, this is a more effective method of scientific research, allowing you to study not only what immediately catches your eye, but also what is often hidden in the depths of the phenomenon.

There are two main types of experiment: natural and model. If in the first case the subject under study is in natural conditions, which change in accordance with a certain program, then in the second case the real object is replaced by a model.

The scientific facts obtained in observation and experiment are subjected to analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the mental division of the subject under study into its constituent elements in order to study its structure and internal communications. Synthesis is the process of mental connection of the parts of an object dissected in the course of analysis, the establishment of interaction and connections of parts and the knowledge of this object as a whole. In order to study an aircraft, it is first necessary to get acquainted in detail with each of its systems (fuel, air, hydraulic, oxygen, electrical, etc.) separately, and then comprehend all this as a whole.

Analysis and synthesis are closely related, mutually presuppose and complement each other. Otherwise, they lose their cognitive value.

Comparison is one of the universal operations that allows you to establish the difference between similar and similarity between different

objects, their properties and relationships by applying a series of abstractions.

Abstraction is the mental isolation of individual features, properties and relationships of a particular object that are of interest to us in order to cognize them in a "pure" form (in abstraction from other features, properties and relationships). The objective basis of abstraction is the relative independence of the properties, aspects and relationships of objects, which allows them to be mentally singled out. Generalization is a mental selection of similar (common) features, properties and relationships inherent in the class of objects under consideration. As a rule, essential properties and connections are generalized, and on the basis of this, there is a transition from the singular to the general, from the less general to the more general.

Abstraction and generalization are often used together with historical and logical methods. The historical method is a mental reproduction of the emergence, development and death of a particular object in certain conditions and details, This method reveals the sequence of formation and development of the subject being studied. Boolean Method - Generalized Reflection historical development subject in its essential, necessary connections and relationships. The logical is the historical, corrected, cleansed of accidents, and incorporating the universal.

Both of these methods are in dialectical unity, since the historical method is unthinkable without a certain logical generalization, and the logical method of research, carried out in accordance with the laws that the actual historical process itself gives, is nothing more than the same historical method, only freed from the historical form. and from interfering accidents.

Formalization and modeling methods play an important role in scientific knowledge. Formalization is a way of mentally connecting objects that are different in content based on the similarity of their forms. In other words, the form of an object becomes an independent object of study, on the basis of which it is possible to detect the similarity of objects that are different in content. The use of special symbols in the process of formalization makes it possible to briefly and unambiguously fix the knowledge gained in the form of certain signs. This is especially valuable in the process of using a computer.

Concretization and interpretation are operations opposite to abstraction and formalization, providing a transition from abstract concepts and definitions to concrete objects, from abstract schemes to their objective meaning.

Modeling is a material or mental reproduction of the properties, functions and relationships of the subject under study on a specially created model for the purpose of studying it. A model is an object that resembles the original in certain respects and serves as a means of fixing known and obtaining new information about the subject under study. Modeling is used not only as a means of obtaining new information about the subject under study, but also as a means of testing hypotheses in science.

Conclusion

At present, mathematical methods of cognition of economic phenomena are widely used in scientific knowledge. Thus, mathematical methods of operations research (probability theory, linear and dynamic programming, game theory, queuing, etc.) allow taking into account a large number of different factors in the process of making an optimal decision in economic life.

The system of methods is formed not only by links of subordination, but also by links of coordination between methods. According to the functions performed and the features of the application (by coordination), all methods are distributed into several mutually coordinated groups:

a) historical and logical;

b) empirical and theoretical;

c) natural and model;

d) qualitative and quantitative, etc.

Each of these paired groups of methods complements each other, and together they provide a comprehensive, holistic display of the object. This problem can be considered with the help of a diagram.

So, firstly, in philosophical literature there is no identity of points of view on the essence of methodology, the classification of methods of cognition, the relationship between method and theory, the relationship between the objective and subjective aspects of the method. From our point of view, methodology should be understood as a system of initial, fundamental principles that determine the way of approaching the analysis and evaluation of phenomena, the nature of the attitude towards them, the nature and direction of cognitive and practical activities. Methodology is the doctrine of method. By method we understand the way, the way of cognition and practical transformation of reality.

Bibliography

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. "Philosophy" M.: Prospekt, 2000

2. Leshkevich T.G. "Philosophy of Science: Traditions and Innovations" M.: PRIOR, 2001

3. Spirkin A.G. "Fundamentals of Philosophy" M.: Politizdat, 1988

4. "Philosophy" under. ed. Kokhanovsky V.P. Rostov-n/D.: Phoenix, 2000

5 Agofonov V.P., Kazakov D.F., Rachinsky D.D. "Philosophy" M.: MSHA, 2000

6 Frolov I.T. "Introduction to Philosophy" Ch-2, M.: Politizdat, 1989

7 Ruzavin G.I. "Methodology of scientific research" M.: UNITY-DANA, 1999.

8. Gonchar L. F. "Philosophy" Moscow 2002.

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Observation, unlike other methods and techniques, forms a vivid "live" idea of the surrounding world. Thanks to this method, it is possible to form one of the most important personality traits - observation.

In visual activity, which has sensory foundations, observation is one of the major indicative actions. The method of observation is aimed at shaping this action.

Requirementsto observation

1. Purposefulness Observation in visual activity means, first of all, the perception of the content, those features of the object that will serve as the basis for the image, will allow visualizing the artistic image as a result of visual activity.

2. Emotionality of perception. Without feelings born of communication with people, art, nature, the man-made objective world, there can be no art, there can be no artistic, creative activity. Knowledge that is not backed up, not connected with feelings, does not encourage active action and, in particular, to manifest oneself in visual activity.

3. Meaningfulness of observation. Visual activity requires a special perception of objects, phenomena, identification and awareness of those properties that are to be depicted (shape, color, proportions, etc.). The child must understand many visible phenomena. For example, why the pines in the forest are tall, slender, powerful, and one pine on the shore has grown large and clumsy. Why do hare's hind legs are stronger and longer than the front. That is, the external features of objects are comprehended on the basis of revealing the internal content of the phenomenon, the essential links between the external features and the internal state, the influence of some factors. In this case, the process of cognition is deeper, feelings are more meaningful, a general idea of the phenomenon arises, which allows the child to better navigate when perceiving similar or contrasting phenomena.

4. Activity of children. In observation, it is necessary to provide a wide variety of activities for children: emotional, mental, verbal, motor. Only under this condition will the monitoring process be effective.

5. Repeatability of observations is especially important for children to create diverse, expressive images. In the process of repeated observations, children can see one object in changing conditions(birch on a clear sunny day, at sunset, on a windy day; forest in "golden" and late autumn). In the process of repeated observations, one can see a variety of objects of the same type: different in appearance trucks, depending on the specific functional purpose; different residential buildings or buildings with different purposes (school, kindergarten, residential building, palace for children, etc.). In this way, repeated purposeful observations significantly enrich children's ideas. The last observation should be as close as possible to the imaging process, since, due to the dominant involuntary nature of all mental processes in preschoolers, it is impossible to retain for a long time the “fresh” vivid impressions necessary for the image.

6. Taking into account the age capabilities of children and image tasks in the selection of the volume of representations formed in the course of observation. This requirement is realized both in the content and in the method of conducting observation with children.

The methodology for organizing and conducting observation with children involves:

the need to choose a place and time in accordance with the tasks of observation,

a variety of questions that activate the cognitive activity of children,

enrichment of observation with other methods: story, explanation, artistic word, game moments, survey elements, etc.

Example. You can organize the observation of spring birch trees on a bright sunny day. In a conversation, draw the attention of preschoolers to color and color: why does the crown of birches seem pink? How do pink and brown tones fit against the blue sky?

Encourage the children to think about how this can be portrayed.

One more observation can be made in order to focus the attention of children on changes in the same object (spring birch trees) in evening time or a cold cloudy day. It is advisable to offer preschoolers a more difficult task: to notice as many changes as possible in this picture of nature.

If the children have to draw a spring birch grove on a cloudy day, they should observe how the outlines of the crown change (there is no clarity and delicacy), how its color changes, the colors of trees, sky, earth, etc. In essence, such activity (observations) can be organized as partially search. The results of these observations will be visible in the drawings, when the children themselves choose the color of paper, material, color, composition, etc. Individual observation tasks can be completely independent, exploratory in nature.

Thus, the method of observation can be presented, depending on the nature of the cognitive activity of children, as reproductive, heuristic, or exploratory.

There are some features of observations conducted with children of different age groups. The content of special observations carried out before classes in fine arts should be closely related to the content and objectives of the upcoming classes.

Children junior groups accept a topic if it is interesting and accessible to them

With kids, they observe phenomena, objects in their natural environment, simple in form and bright in color. As a rule, 1-2 signs are singled out (for example, color and rhythm). Observations are short-term; children are not given a setting for the subsequent image, i. the teacher does not say what they are watching for, since the children do not keep this task. The teacher himself determines the shape, color. Children repeat. It is very important that perception takes place in action, in movement, in play. Conversation-conversation should be relaxed, take place in a joyful playful atmosphere.

Example: theme for the image "Dandelions in the meadow." Children of the first junior group can draw dandelions with rhythmic yellow strokes on green paper (“clearing”).

Dandelion sightings can be daily and fun for kids. The teacher leads the kids to the lawn, where a lot of dandelions have grown. The kids run all over the clearing (this is important for the feeling of space, for the subsequent meaningful perception and development of a green sheet of paper as the space of a lawn, a meadow on which dandelions will “grow”). Children look and wonder, it turns out that dandelions grow everywhere. With a rhythmic movement of the hand, it is useful to show where they grow, emphasizing the rhythm of the arrangement with the words: “And here, and here, and here. Another dandelion, more ... ”This gesture and word will be useful to the educator when stimulating rhythmic visual actions (rhythmically applying smears-spots on a sheet of paper).

You should pay attention to the color of dandelions and grass, the teacher admires this beauty, showing an example of an emotional relationship to nature. Of course, kids will certainly touch dandelions and sniff them. You can play dandelions: close your heads with your hands, and then “bloom” under the sun, “warm up” in the sun, etc. Poems and songs about this spring miracle will come in handy.

At 2 junior group children can already draw dandelions, depicting heads with a rounded spot or outlining and painting over a contour, someone is already conveying an elementary structure - a stalk. Therefore, an element of examination can be included in the observation: with a gesture - with a finger, outline the heads of dandelions, small and large. You can pay attention to the thick and juicy grass, where dandelions did not grow. Otherwise, the observation will change little, but the drawings will be done in a different way. Kids on their own initiative can complement the image.

With kids middle group observation may be longer. It is necessary to highlight several features: color, shape, structure, location in space. Children of this age are ready to answer questions (of a reproductive and exploratory nature), elementary comparisons and generalizations. It is possible to organize repeated observation with the complication of the content and methods of cognition.

Example (same). The attention of children can be drawn to the structure of dandelions. They independently determine the rounded shape of the head, a thin stem. With the help of leading questions, the educator examines the leaflets. You can draw the attention of preschoolers to the variety of dandelions: large and small, with even and bent stems, just blossomed and already turned into white balls, flying around, etc. It is important to consider insects that have chosen flowers and lawn, etc. Children's drawings acquire personality traits due to the composition, expressive details-additions, diversity in the image of dandelions. At the end of the observation, children can be told about the upcoming drawing, advising them to capture the beauty that will soon pass, “fly around”, and they will have to wait for such a miracle until next spring.

older children are already capable of accepting the purpose of observation associated with the subsequent image (it is desirable to report on the purpose after the emotional perception of the beauty of nature by preschoolers). It is necessary to give the child the opportunity to see sunny spring flowers at once, in a combination of colors. It is advisable to help children "splash out" their feelings, express themselves. If this is difficult for children, the teacher needs to show his attitude, attract children to empathy, encourage them to search for words, images, comparisons to express feelings. After that, offer to draw a spring landscape, flowers in a meadow, so that people can admire this miracle at any time of the year.

Older children are able to perceive a phenomenon more consciously and actively, to notice hidden internal connections, dependencies, individual signs behind external changes, and to express it in words. Given the more complex tasks of the image, with older preschoolers, you can consider objects (their combinations) near and from afar, compare in size, establish the relative position in space: closer to us, farther, to the right, to the left, etc. In observations with older preschoolers, one can form a representation. To do this, highlighting some expressive features of objects, you can invite the children to think about how to draw it, what material is better to use, what color of paper is more suitable. At the time of observation, it is advisable to plan a future drawing. For example, the theme "Dandelions in the Meadow" or "Spring Blooming Meadow". Children come up with a composition of the picture, highlight the main thing in it. Accordingly, we have to think about how wide the strip of green meadow, the strip of sky will be. Preschoolers are thinking about how, with what colors and materials it is better to draw a spring sky, a green meadow. Maybe watercolor on a damp background, maybe colored wax crayons, etc.

It is recommended to carry out repeated observations (group and individual). And individual observations subject to individual intentions which the teacher forms in children in advance. Knowing, albeit in general terms, the intentions of the children, the teacher directs them to individual or joint observations with their parents. In older groups, observation is closely connected with the act of planning (the idea is built on the basis of observations).

21. The essence and specificity of the organization of the survey in different types productive activity.

Examination method was developed by researchers on the problem of sensory education of preschool children.

Survey - purposeful analytical-synthetic perception of an object by tactile-motor and visual means.

You can examine toys, household items (house, bridge), nature (trees, bushes, flowers, animals). When depicting a person, you can examine a toy-doll, you can examine the figures of children (on a walk, gymnastics), etc.

An examination is a purposeful examination of an object that needs to be depicted.

The survey is used when there are difficulties in depicting individual objects, but survey skills must also be taught, so the survey can act simultaneously as:

teaching method;

The task of learning.

The meaning of the survey is in the formation of a pictorial representation ( those. representation of the future image and ways to create it).

After all, the order of the examination coincides with the sequence of the image, and the examination gestures not only help to isolate the features of the form, but by the nature of the movement they coincide with the shaping pictorial movements (as we outline a round shape along the contour - we draw, as we wrap it around, feel the volumetric shape with our fingers - we sculpt ).

During the examination, the following occurs:

Isolation and explanation of external signs,

Comparison of objects on these grounds,

Establishing and explaining similarities

Generalization

This allows you to form a generalized idea of a group of similar items. On the basis of generalized representations, a generalized way of depicting objects of the same type is also formed.

Survey structure

Survey can be divided into three distinct phases.

First stage- a holistic emotional perception of an object through some expressive feature.

For example, a fluffy, soft kitten (toy), an important proud goose (papier-mâché toy); ripe, tasty beautiful apple. Or: “Here is a fox running, a red-haired sister, waving her tail, looking in all directions ...” (toy).

Or children are looking at trucks. You may ask: what kind of car is this? And how did you guess? This technique allows you to isolate the most characteristic feature of an object and associate it with a function, purpose.

The meaning of the first stage of examining the depicted object is that preschoolers need to evoke a feeling of surprise, admiration, admiration, curiosity, etc. depending on the nature of the subject.

Second phase - analytical perception of the subject, i.e. sequential selection of pictorial features, parts and properties of the subject.

The order of such selection and definition corresponds to the sequence of the image.

Therefore, the approximate sequence of analysis is as follows:

1. Allocate and name the largest part of the subject and its purpose.

2. Determine the shape of this part. If possible, they find out the dependence of the form on the function (purpose), living conditions (why the fish is oval, why trucks have a rectangular, long body).

3. Determine the position of this part in space (why this pine has a clumsy, even forked trunk, while others have a slender one).

4. Then another (rather large) part is isolated and the position, shape, and size of it in relation to the main one are found out.

5. A color is distinguished if its image is involuntary, but is performed in accordance with nature.

Third stage - holistic emotional perception of the subject, as if uniting the emerging representation into a holistic image.

In the structure of the survey (analysis), it is often used examining gesture of the teacher and children, which helps to isolate the form, its features. Tracing a finger along the contour of an object organizes visual perception, the gaze first accompanies, then directs the movement of the finger. Besides, the drawing of the surveying gesture coincides with the shaping movement produced during the image.

The older the children, the more the word can be used to control their actions: “Wrap your arms around, touch with your fingers like this (shows a gesture).”

An examining gesture is accompanied by a word that determines the direction, nature of the movement, and ultimately determines the shape. For example, “the finger“ runs ”on the ringlet, does not stop anywhere - a round ringlet. That's how it rolled, it doesn't stop." Or: "The neck of the goose is long, the breast is rounded."

The investigating gesture changes in different types of visual activity.

The scientific facts obtained in observation and experiment are subjected to analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the mental division of the subject under study into its constituent elements in order to study its structure and internal connections. Synthesis is the process of mental connection of the parts of an object dissected in the course of analysis, the establishment of interaction and connections of parts and the knowledge of this object as a whole. In order to study an aircraft, it is first necessary to get acquainted in detail with each of its systems (fuel, air, hydraulic, oxygen, electrical, etc.) separately, and then comprehend all this as a whole.

Analysis and synthesis are closely related, mutually presuppose and complement each other. Otherwise, they lose their cognitive value.

Comparison is one of the universal operations that allows you to establish the difference between similar and similarity between different

objects, their properties and relationships by applying a series of abstractions.

Abstraction and generalization are often used together with historical and logical methods. The historical method is a mental reproduction of the emergence, development and death of a particular subject under certain conditions and details. This method reveals the sequence of formation and development of the subject under study. The logical method is a generalized reflection of the historical development of an object in its essential, necessary connections and relationships. The logical is the historical, corrected, cleansed of accidents, and incorporating the universal.

General characteristics of perception

Perception (perception) is the reflection in the human mind of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.

In the course of perception, there is an ordering and unification of individual sensations into integral images of things and events. Unlike sensations, which reflect the individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole, in the aggregate of its properties. Perception is associated with awareness, understanding, comprehension of objects, phenomena, with their assignment to a certain category according to the corresponding signs, grounds. Only by including an object or phenomenon in a certain system, embracing it with an appropriate concept, can we correctly interpret it.

Thus, perception acts as a meaningful (including decision-making), signified (associated with speech) synthesis of various sensations received from integral objects or complex phenomena perceived as a whole. Since perception is a sensory stage of cognition, it is associated with thinking, has a motivational orientation, and is accompanied by an emotional response. It is on the basis of perception that the activity of memory, thinking, and imagination is possible.

The perception of a person is a necessary prerequisite and condition for his life and practical activity. Knowledge of the patterns of perception processes helps to better understand the mechanism for the formation of testimony, to identify the psychological origins of the errors of the investigator, the court and, on this basis, to make recommendations to improve the effectiveness of their law enforcement activities.

Perception as action

Perception is a kind of action aimed at examining the perceived object and creating its copy, likeness.

Perception is a complex cognitive activity that includes a whole system of perceptual actions that allow you to detect the object of perception, identify it, measure it, evaluate it (Fig. 1).

Perceptual actions

Measuring

Commensurate

Construction

Control

Corrective

Allows you to estimate the size of the perceived object

Allows you to compare the sizes of several objects

Responsible for constructing a perceptual image

Allows you to compare the emerging image with the features of the object

Fix bugs in image

Tonic-regulatory

Maintain the necessary level of muscle tone for the implementation of the process of perception

Rice. 1. Perceptual actions

Their composition depends on the degree of meaningfulness of perception, i.e. from the understanding of what is perceived, and from the nature of the perceptual task facing the person, i.e. on why and for what purpose a person is looking or listening at the moment.

Types of perception

Allocate different kinds perception (Fig. 2).

According to the form of mental activity

By shape
existence
matter

According to the leading analyzer

Disorganized

Olfactory

By structure

tactile

Auditory

visual

kinesthetic

Organized

By degree of organization

Taste

Deliberate

Unintentional

Movement perception

Perception of time

Perception of space

Depending on the characteristics of the perceived object

Simultaneous

successive

Types of perception

Rice. 2. Classification of perception

Intentional perception xcharacterized by the fact that it is based on a consciously set goal. It is connected with the willpower of a person.

It is known that one of the forms of intentional perception is observation - a deliberate, purposeful, systematic, systematic and long-term perception of objects and phenomena of reality, people and oneself.

The specialist performing the observation must take into account the peculiarities of the individual type of perception (analytical, synthetic, analytical-synthetic, emotional). So, synthetic type observers are characterized by a generalized reflection and definition of the main meaning of what is happening. They do not see the details because they do not attach importance to them.

People of the analytical type tend to highlight when observing, first of all, details, particulars, but understanding the general meaning of phenomena causes great difficulties for them. They often replace the general idea of an object, an event with a thorough analysis of individual actions, details, while being unable to single out the main thing.

People of the emotional type of perception tend to express their feelings caused by the observed phenomena as soon as possible, but are unable to highlight its essence. A person of this type of perception, observing an object, first of all notices what affects his emotional sphere, and does not try to understand the features of the object itself.

Observation is the main method of studying the situation and the scene. Observation of the manifestations of the mental and physical state of the accused or suspect during the preliminary investigation or trial does not have evidentiary value, but it is necessary for prompt psychological diagnosis, establishing contact and trusting relationships, and legitimate mental influence.

Unintended Perceptionis a perception in which objects surrounding reality are perceived without a specially set task, when the process of perception is not connected with the volitional efforts of a person.

Organized Perception(observation) is an organized, purposeful, systematic perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world.

Disorganized perception- this is an unintentional perception of the surrounding reality.

Simultaneous perception- one act.

Successive perceptionstep by step, sequential.

The perception of man by man(social perception) is an extremely complex phenomenon. It usually has two aspects: cognitive (cognitive) - the ability to understand by external manifestation what a person is, to penetrate into the depth of his personality, individuality and emotional - the ability to determine by external behavioral signs the emotional state in which a person is at the moment, the ability to empathize, or empathy.

The perception of a person by a person is essential in testimony. Depending on the importance people attach to various personality traits, they relate to each other in different ways, experience different feelings and, when giving testimony, bring to the fore certain individual aspects of the other person.

Perception of spaceplays an important role in the interaction of a person with the environment, is a necessary condition for the orientation of a person in it. It is a reflection of an objectively existing space and includes the perception of the shape, size and relative position of objects, their topography, remoteness and direction in which they are located (Fig. 3) .

Perception of space

Perception of form, volume and
size of objects

visual illusions

Depth perception

and remoteness of objects

Linear

and air
perspective

Rice. 9.3. Perception of space

In some criminal cases, such as, for example, cases of car accidents, the perception and correct assessment of the spatial coordinates of moving objects is very important.

The perception of the shape, volume and size of objects is carried out with the help of visual, tactile and kinesthetic analyzers. The perception of form requires the selection of an object from the background, and this, in turn, often requires the selection of a contour, i.e. the boundaries of the spatial elements of the figure, differing in brightness, color, texture.

The perceived size of objects is determined by the size of their image on the retina and the distance from the eyes of the observer. The adaptation of the eye to a clear vision of objects at different distances is carried out using two mechanisms: accommodation (change in the refractive power of the lens by changing its curvature) and convergence (convergence of visual axes on a fixed object).

The perception of depth and distance of objects is carried out in the form of monocular and binocular vision. Monocular vision (with the help of one eye due to a change in the thickness of its lens) allows you to correctly estimate distances, however, within very limited limits. The perception of depth and distance of objects is carried out mainly through binocular vision (using two eyes) and the convergence that accompanies it.

As objects move away from the observer, their image on the retina decreases. An example of linear perspective is the apparent convergence of parallel rails in the distance. railway and others. Aerial perspective lies in the fact that the light and color reflected by objects are distorted to a certain extent under the influence of layers of air.

The phenomena of erroneous or distorted perception are called perceptual illusions. Illusions are observed in any kind of perception (visual, auditory, etc.). The nature of illusions is determined not only by subjective reasons, such as orientation, attitude, emotional attitude, etc., but also by physical factors and phenomena.

AT professional activity As a lawyer, it is important to separate objective facts from subjective layers. So, for example, when interrogating a witness, it is necessary to clarify the conditions under which the incident was perceived (illumination, duration, distance, meteorological conditions, etc.). At the same time, you should be aware that people are often not able to accurately assess the number of perceived objects, the distance between them, their spatial relationship and size. So, for example, spatial perceptions are characterized by an overestimation of small distances and an underestimation of large ones. Brightly colored objects, as well as well-lit objects, appear more closely spaced. In addition, gaps in sensory perception are often filled with elements that did not actually exist. Judgmental errors are often explained by the integrity of perception and are caused by the fact that the assessment of the subject as a whole is transferred to the assessment of its details.

Perception of timethere is a reflection of the duration, the sequence of the phenomena of reality, as well as the pace and rhythm (Fig. 4).

Perception of time

Perception of a sequence of phenomena

Perception of the duration of phenomena

Perception of tempo and rhythm

Rice. 4. Perception of time

Reflecting objective reality, the perception of time gives a person the opportunity to navigate in environment. Time perception is based on the rhythmic change of excitation and inhibition. Its dynamics constitutes the physiological basis of the perception of time. The perception of the sequence of phenomena is based on their clear division and the objectively existing replacement of some phenomena by others, and is also associated with ideas about the present. Once perceived, a phenomenon remains in memory in the form of a representation of it. If it is then re-perceived, then this perception evokes in our memory the idea of the former, which is recognized as the past.

A number of factors influence the perception of the sequence of events:

perceptual attitude of the subject, expressed in his readiness to perceive events;
objective ordering of events, manifested in the natural organization of stimuli;
the ordering of events by the subject himself using a certain sequence of events that have some signs that are significant for the subject.

For example, it has been experimentally established that if we are simultaneously affected by two stimuli, then the one for which we are prepared to perceive will be perceived as a previous, earlier stimulus. In the same way, a stimulus in which we show interest will be perceived as anterior to another, "uninteresting" stimulus. This property of perception explains the reason for the appearance of some errors in the testimony, especially about facts that are significantly remote from the moment of interrogation. The perception of the duration of phenomena is largely determined by the nature of experiences. Usually, time that has been filled with interesting, deeply motivated activities seems to be shorter than time spent idle, waiting for unpleasant things to happen.

The perception of time changes depending on the emotional state. Positive emotions give the illusion of a fast passage of time, negative ones - subjectively stretch time intervals somewhat.

As investigative practice shows, often the perception of time by a witness, victim, accused occurs in a state of emotional, mental tension, which distorts the assessment of the duration of the event. A similar distortion is observed during the interrogation of the accused, who committed a crime in a state of passion. In such cases, in the course of an investigative experiment, the witness, victim or accused is invited to reproduce the actions that he was engaged in during the period of interest. Simultaneously, timing is carried out. The perception of the length of time varies with age. For the elderly, time passes much faster than for a child. This should be taken into account by the investigator when interrogating witnesses when faced with a discrepancy in their testimony.

The perception of tempo is a reflection of the speed with which individual stimuli succeed each other in a process taking place in time.

The perception of rhythm is a reflection of the uniform alternation of stimuli, their regularity when objects and phenomena of objective reality act on our senses. Rhythm perception is usually accompanied by motor accompaniment. The sense of rhythm is basically motor in nature.

Movement perceptionis a reflection of the change in the position that objects occupy in space (Fig. 5).

Movement perception

Character

The form

Amplitude

Acceleration

Duration

Speed

Direction

Rice. 5. Movement perception

The main role in the perception of movement is played by visual and kinesthetic analyzers. Object movement parameters are speed, direction and acceleration . Observing the movement, first of all, they perceive its nature (flexion, extension, repulsion, etc.); shape (rectilinear, curvilinear, circular, etc.); amplitude (full, incomplete); direction (right, left, up, down); speed (fast or slow movement); acceleration (uniform, accelerating, slowing down, intermittent movement).

Basic properties of perception

Speaking about the properties of perception, it is necessary to distinguish two groups among them: properties that are inherent to one degree or another in all cognitive processes and characterize the essence of the process of perception, and properties that reflect the productivity of perception as a mental cognitive process. The first group includes the main "essential" properties of perception (Fig. 6), the second group - indicators of performance, quality and reliability of the perceptual system (Fig. 7).

Properties that define the essence of perception

objectivity

Integrity

Structurality

meaningfulness

Selectivity

A person perceives mental images of objects not as images, but as real objects, bringing the images outside, objectifying them.

With an incomplete reflection of the individual properties of the perceived object, the mental completion of the received information takes place to a holistic image of a particular object.

A person recognizes various objects due to the stable structure of their features.

A person is aware of what he perceives. This makes it possible to use objects in a targeted manner.

From the countless number of objects and phenomena surrounding a person, he chooses only a few, depending on his needs and interests.

constancy

The same objects are perceived by a person in changing conditions in an unchanged form.

Apperception

Perception depends on general content mental life of a person. Previous experience plays a big role

Rice. 6. Properties characterizing the essence of perception

Objectivity of perception- the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not in the form of a set of sensations that are not related to each other, but in the form of individual objects. Objectivity is not an innate property of perception, but arises and improves in ontogenesis on the basis of movements that ensure the contact of the child with the object. Objectivity is manifested in the selection of the perceived object from the background.

Properties of perception that determine its productivity

Volume

Speed

Accuracy

Reliability

The number of objects that a person can perceive during one fixation or per unit of time

The time required for a person to adequately perceive an object or phenomenon

Correspondence of the emerging image to the features of the perceived object and the task facing the person

Probability of adequate perception of an object under given conditions and within a given time

Rice. 7. Properties that determine the productivity of perception

Integrity of perception- is expressed in the fact that the images of reflected objects appear in the mind of a person in the aggregate of many of their qualities and characteristics, even if some of these qualities are not perceived at the moment. In the process of perception, the image of the perceived object may not be completely given in finished form (for example, the back of the thing), but, as it were, is mentally completed to some integral form. Integrity is not an initially given property, it is formed in objective activity.

Structural perception- dismemberment and specific interconnection of the parts of the perceived object (its structure). A person perceives a generalized structure abstracted from sensations. Thus, a melody played on different instruments is perceived as one and the same.

Meaningfulness of perception- shows that objects perceived by a person have a certain life meaning. In the process of comprehension, the sensory content of perception is subjected to analysis and synthesis, comparison, abstraction and generalization. The comprehension of the subject ends with the name of its word - the concept, i.e. assignment to a certain group, class, category of objects. Thanks to the comprehension of the essence and purpose of objects, their purposeful use becomes possible.

Selectivity of perception- the ability of a person to perceive only those objects that are of greatest interest to him. This feature of perception, on the one hand, depends on the interests, to a large extent on the attitudes of the individual, needs, knowledge, and on the other hand, it is due to the characteristics of the object of perception itself, its “showiness”, contrast, etc.

Constancy of perception- this is the constancy in perception, which is conditioned by knowledge physical properties object, as well as the fact that the object of perception is perceived in the circle of other objects known to man. It ensures the constancy of the perceived size, shape and color of objects when changing distance, angle, illumination. Constancy of perception is largely a manifestation of past experience.

Apperception - the dependence of perception on the previous experience of the subject, on its general content, the orientation of the personality, on the tasks facing him, the motives of his activity, beliefs and interests, emotional states. Apperception gives an active character to the perception of personality. Perceiving objects, a person expresses his attitude towards them.

Perceptual disturbance

In legal practice, one often has to deal with such a violation of perception as a hallucination.

hallucinations usually called perception that occurs without the presence of a real object (visions, ghosts, imaginary sounds, voices, smells, etc.). Hallucinations are, as a rule, a consequence of the fact that perception is saturated not with external real impressions, but with internal images. By a person who is in the grip of hallucinations, they are experienced as truly perceived, i.e. people during hallucinations actually hear, see, smell, and do not imagine or imagine. For a hallucinating person, subjective sensory sensations are just as valid as those coming from the objective world.

Of greatest interest are visual hallucinations, which are distinguished by an unusual variety. The influence of visual hallucinations has a very strong emotional impact on a person: it can cause horror or admiration, even admiration. The reasons that caused hallucinations can be: severe intoxication, toxic and narcotic substances, mental disorders.

should be distinguished from hallucinations illusions, those. erroneous perception of real things or phenomena. The obligatory presence of a genuine object, although perceived erroneously - main feature illusions.

Illusions are usually divided into affective and verbal (verbal) ones. Affective illusions are most often caused by fear or anxious mood. In this state, a passer-by may appear as a murderer or rapist. Verbal illusions consist in a false perception of the actual conversations of others; a person hears in them hints of some unseemly acts, hidden threats against him.

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