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Porcelain from what. Types and distinctive features of faience and porcelain. Methods for decorating porcelain

Porcelain is also distinguished depending on the composition of the porcelain mass on soft and solid. Soft porcelain is different solid not by hardness, but by the fact that when soft porcelain is fired, more liquid phase than when firing a solid, and therefore the risk of deformation of the workpiece during firing is higher.

The term "porcelain" in English-language literature is often applied to technical ceramics: zircon, aluminous, lithium, boron-calcium etc. porcelain, which reflects the high density of the corresponding special ceramic material.

soft porcelain

Porcelain painting

Porcelain is painted in two ways: underglaze painting and overglaze painting.

When painting underglaze porcelain, paints are applied to unglazed porcelain. Then the porcelain product is covered with transparent glaze and fired at a high temperature of up to 1350 degrees.

The palette of colors of overglaze painting is richer, overglaze painting is applied on glazed linen (a professional term for unpainted white porcelain) and then fired in a muffle furnace at a temperature of 780 to 850 degrees.

During firing, the paint is fused into the glaze, leaving behind a thin layer of glaze. Paints after a good firing shine (except for special matte paints used only for decorative purposes), do not have any roughness and in the future better resist the mechanical and chemical effects of acidic food products and alcohol.

Among the paints for painting porcelain, a group of paints prepared using noble metals stands out. The most common paints using gold, platinum and silver paint (or argentine).

Gold paints with a lower percentage of gold content (10-12%) are fired at a temperature of 720 to 760 degrees (bone china is fired at a lower temperature than hard - "real" - porcelain). These paints are more decorative, and the products decorated with them cannot be subjected to mechanical stress (wash with abrasives and in a dishwasher.)

Gold, silver chandeliers, polishing polishing and powdered gold and silver (50-90%) are fired at a higher temperature along with paints. The polishing polish and powdered gold after firing have a matte appearance and are painted with an agate pencil (the pattern is applied approximately like a simple pencil on paper, only you cannot make a mistake with shading the pattern, since this cannot be corrected later. The master in this case must be very highly qualified) Combination matt and shiny gold after polishing creates an additional decorative effect on porcelain. Chandeliers and powdered gold paints are more stable on porcelain than 10-12% gloss. However, in the entire history of the creation of porcelain and its technologies, nothing better and cheaper than decorating porcelain with gloss has been invented.

Professional overglaze painting is carried out on gum turpentine and turpentine oil. Paints are pre-soaked on the palette for a day or more. After work, they are thoroughly rubbed with the addition of turpentine oil. Turpentine in jars should be dry, slightly greasy (turpentine gradually changes from one state to another). The oil should also be more fluid and thicker. For work, a piece of soaked paint is taken, oil, turpentine are added - and the mixture is diluted to the consistency of thick sour cream. For stroke painting, the paint is diluted with a brush a little thicker, for pen painting - a little thinner.

It is important that the paint does not spread from the pen or brush. Underglaze paint is diluted on water, sugar with the addition of a small amount of glycerin.

Story

Porcelain was first obtained in 620 in China. The method of its manufacture was kept secret for a long time, and only in 1708 the Saxon experimenters Tschirnhaus and Böttger managed to obtain European porcelain (Meissen).

Attempts to discover the secret of oriental porcelain continued for almost two centuries in Italy, France and England. However, the result was materials that vaguely resembled porcelain and were closer to glass.

Johann Friedrich Böttger (1682-1719) began to conduct experiments on the creation of porcelain, which in 1707/1708 led to the creation of "rothes Porcelain" (red porcelain) - fine ceramics, jasper porcelain.

However, real porcelain had yet to be discovered. Chemistry as a science in its modern sense did not yet exist. Neither in China or Japan, nor in Europe, raw materials for the production of ceramics could yet be determined in terms of chemical composition. The same was true for the technology used. The process of porcelain production is carefully documented in the travel notes of missionaries and merchants, but the technological processes used could not be deduced from these reports. Known, for example, are the notes of the Jesuit priest François Xavier d "Antrekol (English) Russian, containing the secret of Chinese porcelain production technology, made by him in 1712, but became known to the general public only in 1735.

Understanding the basic principle behind the porcelain manufacturing process, namely the need to fire the mixture various kinds soils - those that fuse easily and those that fuse more difficultly - arose as a result of long systematic experiments based on experience and knowledge of geological, metallurgical and "alchemical-chemical" relationships. It is believed that the white porcelain experiments went hand in hand with the rothes porcelain because only two years later, in 1709 or 1710, white porcelain was more or less ready for production.

Dishes are made from the most different materials- glass, ceramics, wood, faience, porcelain and even plastic. The most demanded are products for the production of which porcelain, faience and ceramics were used. Many are interested in the question of how to distinguish these materials from each other, and this is not difficult to do.

China

Faience and porcelain - material differences:

Porcelain is a ceramic that is characterized by impermeability to air and water, but at the same time having a slight thickness. What is ceramics? The answer is simple - this is a material that is produced by sintering clay with some mineral additives. As for the porcelain itself, its main components are considered to be kaolin (clay), feldspar, etc. The porcelain object has an ideal white color. On the surface of porcelain, it is impossible to see the pores, since there are none. This is what makes porcelain durable, making it an ideal raw material for tableware.
Earthenware is a material that resembles porcelain in its properties, however, a faience product, unlike porcelain, will have small pores. What is the difference between porcelain and faience? The latter absorbs a certain amount of moisture (about 12%), while this property is not typical for porcelain. Faience is 85% clay, which explains the property of the material to absorb water. It is for this reason that all faience products are glazed.

Porcelain and faience: types

Before you figure out how to distinguish porcelain from faience, you should learn about the types of these materials. There are such types of porcelain:

Hard: obtained by double annealing at temperatures from 1350 to 1450 degrees, which makes it possible to obtain an ultra-strong material for making dishes. Conditionally hard porcelain is divided into the following types: economic, electrical, chemical and artistic. As for the groups of hard porcelain, they conditionally distinguish European (clay predominates in its composition) and oriental (it is fired at a more gentle temperature regime, and porcelain itself contains less kaolin).
Soft: this porcelain is obtained by firing at temperatures up to 1350 degrees. Its color and characteristics are in many ways similar to hard porcelain, but the soft material is more susceptible to temperature changes. All soft porcelain is divided into European, French and English.

As for faience, it happens:

alumina;
fireclay;
lime;
feldspar.

It is no secret that porcelain is more expensive than faience, which is what unscrupulous sellers of products made from these materials use. In order not to fall for the tricks of deceivers, you should find out how these types of raw materials for the production of dishes can differ.

faience swan

Differences

Porcelain or faience - how to distinguish them:

You should take the product (it can be a mug, plate, figurine, etc.) and pay attention to its rim. If the unglazed edge is white, then it is highly likely that the item in question is made from porcelain.
Then the test object should be examined in the light. If it is translucent, then this indicates that porcelain was used for its manufacture. As for faience, it does not have such a characteristic. If a bulk product is being checked, then attention should be paid to its bottom. The absence of glaze on it will indicate that the product is made of porcelain.
You should take the product and lightly hit it with a metal object. Porcelain will make a clear and sonorous sound. As for faience, the sound coming from hitting it will be muffled.
Over time, earthenware may lose its attractiveness - cracks form on products made from such material. For porcelain, this phenomenon is uncharacteristic.
You can estimate the weight of the product. If it is small, but heavy enough, then this will indicate that the product is made of faience.
Products made of real porcelain are not covered with paint, as it distorts the natural white color of the material. Faience dishes are almost all colored and motley.

Dishes and decor items made of porcelain, in contrast to faience, have high cost. In order not to make a mistake when buying porcelain products, preference should be given to goods offered under well-known brands.

Kirill Sysoev

Calloused hands do not know boredom!

Content

Many people at home have a cup or figurine made of bone china, but few people know what it is and where to buy it. This type of material is characterized by thin-walled, translucent and sophistication. It was designed by the English ceramic master Josiah Spoud. Dishes made from this material are often labeled Bone chine or Fine bone china. According to its characteristics, it occupies an average value between soft and hard material.

What is bone china

Under this type of porcelain is meant a special kind of hard material with the addition of burnt bone. It is very strong, but at the same time white and transparent. High strength indicators are achieved due to the melting of the main ingredients during the firing process. It was created in the course of attempts to recreate the formula for making the famous Chinese porcelain. At the end of the 18th century, bone ash began to be added to the composition of the material, and in the process of developing technology, a basic formula was developed.

The dishes made from such material do not have the effect of an eggshell, which is achieved due to the fact that the voids between the particles of white clay are filled with bone ash. Thus, bone china is one of the most popular materials, which, due to its whiteness and transparency, has won a leading position in sales in the world market. Services from it can have a pleasant cream shade.

Compound

Before ordering Chinese bone china, pay attention to the composition. The basic formula for the manufacture of this type of material provides for 25% kaolin (special white clay) and feldspar mixed with quartz, 50% burnt animal bones. The first firing is carried out at a temperature of 1200-1300 °C, and the second at 1050-1100 °C. The composition of bone ash in this case includes about 85% calcium phosphate.

The bones that are used as part of the porcelain mass are necessarily subjected to special treatment, as a result of which they begin to burn out - this is necessary in order to remove the glue from them and heat them up to a temperature of 1000 ° C. At the same time, organic substances burn out, and the structure of the bones changes to the required state. From the resulting mass, using gypsum molds, objects are obtained, on the surface of which, after firing, various patterns are applied.

If necessary, the products are covered with a layer of glaze and sent back to the oven. Flowers and artistic patterns and lines are applied to the product using a decal - a thin film. They also use painting. In general, the thickness of the finished plates, cups and other kitchen utensils is less than the usual porcelain base. Modern technologies provide for the replacement of biological calcium phosphate with a mineral one. The quality of the dishes does not change.

Advantages

If you need bone china, it is better to buy it in a specialized online store. Some do mail delivery. Branded items have a number of advantages, due to which they gain popularity among consumers. The material has a softer color and a special whiteness, which is not the case with similar materials. Quality is achieved by adding ground and processed bones to the composition. Many prefer this type of porcelain for its:

smoothness;
airiness;
translucency;
refinement.

What is the difference between bone china and ordinary

This type of porcelain differs from analogues in that a unique component is added to the composition - ground and processed animal bones. Due to the ingredient finished products becomes softer, and its walls become thinner. In the light, the material begins to shine a little, which gives the sets airiness and originality, an aristocratic look. Despite all the elegance, fine porcelain has good mechanical strength, making it durable.

How to store

On sale in Moscow, St. Petersburg, you can find a rich assortment of bone-type porcelain products - these are tea sets, dinner sets, decorative vases with various decors, figurines, figurines and more. All of them have an attractive and original look, different shades and can last for many years due to the unique properties of the mixture. Before ordering products, please read the following care tips:

do not put products one on top of the other - plates, cups, saucers, but if such a need arises, then be sure to shift each of them with napkins;
arrange kitchen utensils so that they do not touch each other - there should be a distance between them;
do not wash products made of thin-walled porcelain with hard washcloths, hot water;
for washing it is better not to use chemical detergents, otherwise they can cause damage to the pattern or cause the colors of the cutlery to fade;
products do not tolerate sudden temperature changes, so before brewing a cup of tea or coffee, preheat them - first with warm water, then a little hotter, etc .;
move the bone material when cleaning kitchen furniture with paper towels to prevent chipping;
wipe porcelain with a dry cloth, removing dust from cups, saucers, etc. as carefully as possible;
do not store sets near open flames - as a result of heating, they may be deformed.

Major manufacturers of bone china

The leaders among all manufacturers of products from such porcelain are the British, who were the first to master the technique of making material with the addition of bone ash. Japanese manufacturers also have excellent skills and considerable experience in the field of creating thin-walled porcelain: they changed the established proportion of the bone component in the composition of the porcelain mass. The Japanese came up with a special formula, thanks to which the usual technology has been noticeably improved. Known Manufacturers:

Imperial Porcelain Factory (IPZ). It was founded in 1744 by Empress Elizabeth, the daughter of Peter the Great. At that time, the plant became the first porcelain enterprise in Russia and the third in all of Europe. In the early years, small things were produced there - mostly snuff boxes for the Empress. Over time, a large forge was built and the factory began to produce larger items. The manufactory was reorganized with the accession of Catherine II. The end of the 18th century was the heyday of Russian porcelain, and IPM became one of the leading factories in Europe. As for porcelain with bone ash in its composition, a suitable mass was first developed in Soviet time- in 1968. The first such batch was released by IFZ. Now the enterprise is the only one in Russia that produces bone china mass and objects from it.
Royal Doulton. A company from England, which has been specializing in the production of bone material for a long time and has the status of one of its largest manufacturers and suppliers. Together with the British factory Wedgwood, it is part of an alliance. Founded in 1815, headquartered in Stoke-on-Trent (UK). Royal Doulton produces porcelain objects of various shapes, sizes and purposes. The collections of this company are very popular in many countries.
wedgwood. Another well-known company that produces products from bone china mass. She has been supplying it to the English royal court for over 200 years. The foundation of the Wedgwood brand dates back to 1759, when Joshua Wedgwood rented a manufactory in Burslem. In addition to classical tableware, the company produces avant-garde lines, which include products of non-traditional shape, art objects.
Spode. A brand of bone china tableware from the UK with 200 years of experience. The company offers mugs, plates, sets made to the highest quality standards. The manufactory has existed since 1770. Josiah Spoud (founder) improved the bone china formula and was the first to supply tableware to the English royal court in the 18th century. In 2009, Spode joined Portmeirion Grou - well-known company for the production of elite porcelain.
Narumi. Japanese company which was founded in 1911. Its products combine modernity and tradition, West and East, unique beauty and versatility. Since 1965, Narumi began to mass-produce porcelain. Narumi bone china products are mostly handcrafted. The brand has become a leader in the field of high-end porcelain Bone China.

Choice

Buying an elegant porcelain product with underglaze painting requires a competent and serious approach, especially if you are going to choose an expensive souvenir. self made. In addition, it is important to distinguish a fake. This quality creation has a pure translucent white color and gloss with good strength characteristics. Some companies try to combine innovative solutions with traditional recipes and designs. Criterias of choice:

Material color. It should have a warm, light tone and not be too white.
Transparency. If the products are of high quality, then its walls will transmit light well. Holding the thing in your hands, you will clearly see the outlines of your fingers through it.
Study the drawing applied to a porcelain object. Often it is applied by hand, so you can notice the characteristic strokes, the trace of the brush.
Pay attention to the manufacturer. It is desirable that on the back of a porcelain creation there is a marking of one of famous brands. If the manufacturer is unfamiliar to you, then postpone the purchase, first study all the information about it.
It is important to make sure the object is smooth, the absence of holes, inclusions, bubbles, scratches, chips on the surface and along the edges.

Where could I buy

You can buy products from bone china mass with a cold white tint at retail outlets specializing in the sale of elite tableware. Look for large stores that often hold promotions, reducing the cost of goods. visit outlets on your own: you will have a chance to take a good look at the items and verify the authenticity. You can order the following product from a trusted seller via the Internet. It will be good if you can agree that you will make the main payment after you check the goods.

Price

The cost of bone china varies greatly depending on the manufacturer and type of product. Services, cups and saucers in which are so thin that they can transmit light are in great demand. From the table you can find out the current prices for some types of bone china services:

Set name	What is included	Price in rubles
Royal Bone China Golden embroidery for 6 persons	6 cups, 6 saucers
Japonica Grazia JDYSQH-5 for 6 persons	6 cups, 6 saucers
Royal Aurel Hoarfrost for 6 persons	6 cups, 6 saucers, teapot
Hankook Chinaware Silver Ribbon for 2 persons	2 cups, 2 saucers
Lenardi series Golden Symphony for 6 persons	6 cups, 6 saucers
Royal Aurel Grazia for 6 persons	6 cups, 6 saucers
Lenardi series Silver symphony for 6 persons	6 cups, 6 saucers
Lenardi series Meissen bouquet for 6 persons	6 cups, 6 saucers
Japonica Paradise JDFES-9 for 2 persons	2 cups, 2 saucers
Japonica Grazia JDYSQH-4 for 6 persons	6 cups, 6 saucers, 1 teapot, 1 milk jug, 1 sugar bowl

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Bone china - what is it: properties of dishes

20.08.2018

We decided to find out what the secret is. We have collected for you all the most interesting things about porcelain: when it appeared, what it is made of, what technologies are available.

There are many in the Vazaro catalog porcelain tableware: sets and individual items, cups and dishes for serving. Porcelain has a long history, and even today, when there are thousands of other materials around, it does not give up its position.

What is porcelain and how is it different from ceramics?

Porcelain is a type of ceramic that does not allow gas and water to pass through, but is translucent if the walls are thin enough. It is made from a mixture of clay, kaolin, schwartz and feldspar. The mixture is white and very plastic.

Finished products are fired at a temperature of 1000 degrees - the exact figure depends on the type of porcelain. Then it is glazed with vitreous enamel and fired again. If you hit a porcelain cup with a wooden stick, you get a characteristic high-pitched sound, almost like that of crystal.

Another type of ceramics, which is close to porcelain in composition, is faience. To distinguish them, look at the bottom: if there is no glaze on it, it’s like porcelain in front of you.

When and where was porcelain invented?

The first porcelain products were made by the Chinese, in 620. For more than 1000 years, the manufacturing method was kept secret, until in 1708 the German inventors Tschirngauz and Bettger obtained the first formula for European porcelain.

In the same year, the first porcelain factory was opened in Dresden. True, at first they made biscuit porcelain there - that is, without glaze. In 1710 the first samples of porcelain were presented to the king, and German porcelain began to conquer the world.

A complete description of the technology of Chinese porcelain appeared in 1735, in a letter from the Frenchman Francois Xavier d'Entrecol. A little later in France, in Limoges, factories were opened that supplied the best porcelain to the court of the French king. Thus began the history of the famous Limoges porcelain.

In England in the 18th century, the technology of bone china was discovered - with the addition of ash from the bones of cows. This porcelain was called Bone China, and now it is produced even in China.

The technique of making porcelain was brought to Russia in the late 40s of the 18th century. The first manufactory was the Imperial Porcelain Factory, which was later renamed Leningrad.

What is porcelain?

According to the manufacturing technique, porcelain is soft and hard.

Hard porcelain is 47-66% kaolin and 25% feldspar and quartz each. It is fired at a temperature of 1400 to 1460°C. As a result, it has less liquid phase, and during firing it is less deformed.

The most durable type of hard porcelain is bone. Up to 50% bone meal is added to its composition, so it has thinner and more translucent walls, although it is more difficult to break than usual.

In the composition of soft porcelain, kaolin is not more than 25-40%, quartz 45%, and feldspar - 30%. It is fired at a temperature of 1300-1350°C. Soft porcelain is not as strong as hard porcelain, but more plastic, so it is more often used for decorative items: vases, figurines, caskets.

Porcelain, which was made in ancient China, was just soft, and European - hard.

Porcelain is also painted in two ways.

Underglaze painting is when paint is first applied and then covered with a transparent glaze. So they last longer and withstand repeated washing.

In overglaze painting, paint is applied to the glaze. So they turn out brighter, but are washed off faster. This method is suitable for decorative products.

In mass production, the pattern is applied with a decal. First, it is printed with ceramic paints on gummed varnished paper, and then glued onto dishes and fired. At the same time, the film burns out, and the pattern is fused into the surface. Premium porcelain is produced in limited series and painted by hand.

If porcelain is painted with gold, silver or platinum, it must be washed very carefully: by hand, with warm water, without powders or hard sponges.

Why is chinaware so valuable?

Like all ceramics, porcelain tolerates high temperatures well and retains heat. In a cup with thin walls, tea or coffee cools down, but not completely - just to the right temperature. In this case, you can pour hot soup into a porcelain tureen, and its handles will not heat up.

Porcelain lasts a long time, no matter how fragile it may seem. Over the years, it does not darken, does not absorb moisture and dirt. Modern porcelain is so durable that it can even be washed in a dishwasher.

Porcelain dishes do not spoil the taste of the contents, do not absorb odors and do not oxidize. You can store food in it for a long time - for example, butter or sugar - and they will not lose their taste.

Snow-white glossy porcelain looks solid, suitable for everyday and festive serving. Any murals fit perfectly on a white background: bright or pastel, paint or gilding.

Tuesday, May 03, 2011 13:10 + to quote pad

Porcelain (Turkish farfur, fagfur, from Persian fagfur) is the most noble ceramics. Porcelain tableware is a white durable tableware characterized by amazing lightness and transparency. Porcelain dishes can be distinguished from products made from other types of ceramics by a clear, long ringing sound that it makes when struck.

Varieties and production technology

Basically, porcelain is made from kaolin, clay, quartz and feldspar. Some terminology:

Plavni in ceramic masses they play the role of emaciating additives. During firing, the fluxes contribute to the formation of a low-melting melt, reduce the firing temperature of products, and increase the density of the shard. Feldspar, pegmatite, nepheline syenite, perlite, chalk, dolomite, talc and other materials are used as fluxes in the masses of fine-ceramic products. The action of smoothers in mass is not the same.
Feldspars are a universal flux in the technology of fine ceramics and in the production of glazes. The earth's crust consists of more than 50% of feldspar rocks, but deposits of feldspars suitable for the ceramic industry are very limited and mostly exhausted. They are aluminosilicates of alkali and alkaline earth metals. Pegmatites, granites, perlites can also be used in production.

Kaolin- white clay, which is formed during the weathering of feldspars. It contains the mineral koalinite, and is widely used in industry.

Quartz- another of the most common minerals in the earth's crust, a rock-forming mineral of most igneous and metamorphic rocks. Included in other minerals in the form of mixtures and silicates. Total mass fraction quartz in the earth's crust is more than 60%.

Usually, two firing of porcelain products is carried out: the first for “scrap”, the second for “watered”. The first “scrap” firing aims to sinter the product and provide it with a certain porosity and strength sufficient for glazing with an aqueous suspension. The second firing is necessary for melting the glaze on the surface of the product and for its interaction with the material of the shard.

To improve the molding properties of raw materials, the porcelain mass used to make the famous Chinese “eggshell” porcelain, i.e. products with very thin walls, kept closed in the ground for 100 years. Nowadays, clay can be subjected to flying, especially if it is of low plasticity. To do this, the excavated clay in the form of small pieces is laid out on the ground in beds, which are periodically watered with water, and shoveled. In this state, for several years, the clay is exposed to water, sun, frost and significantly improves its properties. For the manufacture of fine pottery, clay is elutriated in water from impurities, coarse fractions are separated and, after partial dehydration, they rot in cellars for several months.

Freshly precipitated barium sulfate BaSO4 is used as a reference for assessing the whiteness of porcelain. Whiteness is characterized by the intensity of light scattering, which is recorded by a photometer.

The term "porcelain" in the English literature is often applied to technical ceramics: zircon, alumina, lithium, calcium boron and other porcelain, which reflects the high density of the corresponding special ceramic material.

Porcelain is also distinguished depending on the composition of the porcelain mass into soft and hard. Soft porcelain differs from hard porcelain not in hardness, but in the fact that when firing soft porcelain, more liquid phase is formed than when firing hard porcelain, and therefore the risk of deformation of the workpiece during firing is higher.

Solid- with small additions of flux (feldspar) and therefore fired at a relatively high temperature (1380 ... 1460 ° C). The mass of classic hard porcelain consists of 25% quartz, 25% feldspar and 50% kaolin and clay.

Soft– with a high content of fluxes, fired at a temperature of 1200...1280°C. In addition to feldspar, marble, dolomite, magnesite, burnt bone or phosphorite are used as fluxes. With an increase in the content of fluxes, the amount of the vitreous phase increases and, therefore, the translucency of porcelain improves, but strength and heat resistance decrease. Clay imparts plasticity to the porcelain mass (necessary for molding products), but reduces the whiteness of porcelain.

Soft porcelain is used mainly for the manufacture of art products, and hard porcelain is usually used in technology (electrical insulators) and in everyday life (dishes).

Porcelain products are very diverse in their chemical composition, properties and purpose. Some of the most famous types of porcelain and their characteristic features are:

Biscuit porcelain- matte, without glaze. There is an opinion that it is called biscuit because of the double firing. The prefixes "bis" and "bi" in many languages mean two. In the production of porcelain, the firing is first carried out, which is called waste firing, and then the firing during glazing follows. Biscuit porcelain is also fired twice, but the second time without glaze. At present, the technology for the production of biscuit porcelain may not include a second firing. In the era of Classicism, biscuits were used as inserts in furniture products.

Porcelain bone– soft porcelain, indispensable integral part which is the ash of the bones of cattle, consisting mainly of calcium phosphate. Nowadays, it is sometimes replaced by natural calcium phosphates. Products made of bone china are characterized by high whiteness, translucence and decorative effect. Experts believe that bone china began to be produced by J. Spod in 1759 in the vicinity of Stoke-on-Tret (England). In our country, bone china products High Quality produces a porcelain factory. M.V. Lomonosov in St. Petersburg.

Fritted porcelain- well translucent soft porcelain, produced in France since 1738. It contains 30 ... 50% kaolin, 25 ... 35% quartz, 25 ... 35% alkali-rich glass frit. Frits are composite additives to the porcelain mass, which ensure the formation of a vitreous phase, and, consequently, determine the translucency of porcelain. The composition of frits includes: sand, soda, saltpeter, gypsum, table salt and crushed lead glass.

A special place in the classification of porcelain occupies Chinese porcelain. The history of porcelain and the history of China are inextricably linked. In ancient times, jade was mainly used to make dishes in China. But it was too expensive material. The result of a long search by Chinese craftsmen to replace jade is porcelain, the material is more accessible and easier to process. Jade remained a sacred stone in China, and porcelain conquered the Chinese rulers almost immediately.

Of all Chinese porcelain, white is especially distinguished. The secret of its unique fragility and at the same time strength lies in the raw materials from which it is made. Jiangxi province proved to be rich in so-called porcelain stone, a rock composed of quartz and mica. By converting all the components into powder and adding kaolin, a mass was obtained that was stored for many years so that it acquired the necessary plasticity. A special matte sheen was achieved by applying glaze in several layers, of different transparency.

Chinese porcelain is famous for its extraordinary thinness and weightlessness, the walls of the cups are so fragile that they resemble eggshells. Gaining popularity at home, first in the highest circles, and then among the entire population, Chinese ceramics even before our era. began to be exported first to India, Japan and Africa; and only in the XVI century to Europe.

decoration

Colorful decor.

Porcelain is painted in two ways: underglaze painting and overglaze painting.

At underglaze When painting porcelain, paints are applied to unglazed porcelain. Then the porcelain product is covered with transparent glaze and fired at a high temperature of up to 1350 degrees.

Palette of colors overglaze the paintings are richer, the overglaze painting is applied over glazed linen (a professional term for unpainted white porcelain) and then fired in a muffle furnace at a temperature of 780-850 degrees.

During firing, the paint is fused into the glaze, leaving behind a thin layer of glaze. Paints after a good firing are shiny (except for special matt paints used only for decorative purposes), do not have any roughness and subsequently better withstand the mechanical and chemical effects of acidic foods and alcohol.

Professional overglaze painting is carried out on gum turpentine and turpentine oil. Paints are pre-soaked on the palette for a day or more. After work, they are thoroughly rubbed with the addition of turpentine oil. Turpentine in jars should be dry, slightly oily and oily (turpentine gradually changes from one state to another). The oil should also be more fluid and thicker. For work, a piece of soaked paint is taken, oil, turpentine are added - and diluted to the consistency of thick sour cream. For stroke painting, the paint is diluted with a brush a little thicker, for pen painting - a little thinner. Underglaze paint is diluted on water, sugar with the addition of a small amount of glycerin.

Among the paints for painting porcelain, a group of paints prepared using noble metals stands out. The most common paints using gold, platinum and silver paint (or Argentina).

Gold paints with a low percentage of gold content are more decorative, and the products decorated with them cannot be subjected to mechanical stress (wash with abrasives and in a dishwasher).

Relief decor.

This type of decoration of porcelain tableware is embedded directly into the material of the object itself by engraving, perforation or by means of relief-like elevations. Porcelain dishes are either cast in molds together with the relief, or the relief or plastic parts of the decor (flowers, buds, leaves, figurines as handles, etc.) are molded separately and then glued on.

Story

The composition of hard porcelain was invented by the Chinese around the 6th century, but this production secret was kept in strict confidence. Chinese porcelain reaches a high degree of perfection in the 15th and 16th centuries, and in the 16th century thanks to Portuguese navigators. a large number Chinese products reach Europe.

Around 1500, the Japanese mastered the production of porcelain. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch contributed to the acquaintance with Japanese products in Europe, taking them with them along the way from the harbor of Arita in the province of Hizen. After the name of the main harbor where the goods were loaded, this porcelain was called "Imari". A shard of Japanese porcelain is inferior in quality to Chinese, but its decor is much richer and more varied. In addition to the paints used by the Chinese, the Japanese decorated porcelain with gold.

From time to time getting to Europe since the 13th century, Chinese porcelain was inserted into a frame by European jewelers and, along with other precious items, was stored in church, monastic and noble treasuries.

In the second half of the 15th century, the first attempts to imitate porcelain were made in Italy. In 1575, by the will of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Francesco I di Medici, a soft porcelain manufactory was established in the famous Florentine gardens of Boboli. The so-called Medici porcelain in its properties occupied a middle position between hard and soft porcelain. The manufactory operated until the first quarter of the 17th century inclusive.

In the history of porcelain production, Medici porcelain is only an episode. It was followed by other attempts - in England (Dr. Dwight and Francis Place, both in the second half of the 17th century) and in France (Rouen, Saint-Cloud). This ongoing search was stimulated by the import of Far Eastern porcelain, which increased from the beginning of the 17th century. Until the beginning of the 18th century, all attempts remained unsuccessful - the result was materials that vaguely resembled porcelain and were closer to glass.

For example, Johann Friedrich Boettger (1682-1719) carried out experiments on the creation of porcelain, which in 1707/1708 led to the creation of "rothes Porcelain" (red porcelain) - fine ceramics, jasper porcelain.

However, real porcelain had yet to be discovered. Chemistry as a science in its modern sense did not yet exist. Neither in China or Japan, nor in Europe, raw materials for the production of ceramics could yet be determined in terms of chemical composition. The same was true for the technology used. The process of porcelain production is carefully documented in the travel notes of missionaries and merchants, but the technological processes used could not be deduced from these reports. Known, for example, are the notes of the Jesuit priest Francois Xavier d "Entrekol, containing the secret of the technology for the production of Chinese porcelain, made by him in 1712, but which became known to the general public only in 1735.

Letter from François Xavier d'Entrecol on Chinese porcelain production technology, 1712, published by Duhald in 1735.

Understanding the basic principle underlying the porcelain production process, namely the need to fire a mixture of different types of soil - those that fuse easily and those that fuse more difficult - arose as a result of long systematic experiments based on experience and knowledge of geological, metallurgical and "alchemical-chemical" relationships. It is believed that Böttger's experiments with white porcelain went hand in hand with the experiments with "rothes Porcelain", since only two years later, in 1709 or 1710, white porcelain was already more or less ready for manufacture.

It should be noted that Chinese porcelain, from a modern point of view, is soft porcelain, since it contains significantly less kaolin than hard European porcelain, it is also fired at a lower temperature and is less durable.

Together with Böttger, experts and scientists of various specialties worked on the creation of hard European porcelain. European hard porcelain (pate dure) was a completely new product in the field of ceramics.

At the end of December 1707, a successful experimental firing of white porcelain was carried out. The first laboratory notes on porcelain mixtures suitable for use date back to January 15, 1708. On April 24, 1708, an order was given to establish a porcelain manufactory in Dresden. The first pieces of porcelain fired in July 1708 were unglazed. By March 1709, Böttger had solved this problem, but he did not present glazed porcelain samples to the king until 1710.

In 1710, at the Easter fair in Leipzig, marketable tableware made of "jasper porcelain" was presented, as well as samples of glazed and unglazed white porcelain.

History in Russia.

Attempts to organize the production of porcelain or faience in Russia began under Peter I, a great connoisseur of it. On the instructions of Peter I, Russian foreign agent Yuri Kologrivy tried to find out the secret of porcelain production in Meissen, but failed. Despite this, in 1724, the Russian merchant Grebenshchikov founded a faience factory in Moscow at his own expense, where experiments were carried out on the manufacture of porcelain, but they did not receive proper development.

The method of development of science and art, which seemed to be proven in Russia, also failed - the invitation of foreign specialists.
There was only one way, the most difficult and long, but reliable: to organize a search for systematic scientific and technological work, which as a result was supposed to lead to the development of a technology for the production of porcelain. For this, a person was needed who had considerable training, possessing sufficient technical initiative and ingenuity. Such was Dmitry Ivanovich Vinogradov, a native of the city of Suzdal.

In 1736 D.I. Vinogradov with his comrades - M.V. Lomonosov and R. Reiser - at the suggestion of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and by imperial decree was sent “to the German lands to study, among other sciences and arts, especially the most important chemistry and metallurgy, to this matter, as far as mining or manuscript art.
D.I. Vinogradov studied mainly in Saxony, where there were then “the most glorious manuscript and smelting factories in the entire German state” and where the most skillful teachers and masters of this craft worked at that time. He stayed abroad until 1744 and returned to Russia with certificates and certificates of awarding him the title of “bergmeister”, which at that time enjoyed great prestige.

Vinogradov was faced with the task of independently resolving all issues related to the creation of a new production. On the basis of physical and chemical ideas about porcelain, he had to develop the composition of the porcelain mass, technological methods and methods for making the mass of real porcelain. Including - the development of glazes, as well as recipes and technologies for the manufacture of ceramic paints of different colors for painting on porcelain.

More than a thousand different experiments were performed by Vinogradov during his work at, as it was then called, the “porcelain factory”.

In the works of Vinogradov on the organization of porcelain production in Russia, his search for a “recipe” for porcelain mass is of considerable interest. These works refer mainly to 1746-1750, when he intensively searched for the optimal composition of the mixture, improved the recipe, conducting technological research on the use of clays from various deposits, changing the firing mode, etc. The earliest of all discovered information on the composition of the porcelain mass has a date of January 30, 1746. Probably, since that time, Vinogradov began systematic experimental work to find the optimal composition of Russian porcelain and continued it for 12 years, until his death, i.e. until August 1758

From 1747, Vinogradov began to manufacture trial items from his experimental masses, as can be judged from individual exhibits stored in museums and bearing his brand and date of manufacture (1749 and later). In 1752, the first stage of Vinogradov's work on creating the recipe for the first Russian porcelain and organizing the technological process of its production was completed.

It should be noted that when compiling the recipe, Vinogradov tried to encrypt it as much as possible. He did not use Russian, but used Italian, Latin, Hebrew, and German words, also using their abbreviations. This is due to the fact that he was given special instructions about the need to classify the work as far as possible.

Vinogradov's success in making porcelain at the porcelain factory at that time was already so significant that on March 19, 1753, an announcement appeared in the St.

In addition to developing the recipe for porcelain masses and studying clays from various deposits, Vinogradov developed glaze compositions, technological methods and instructions for washing clays at deposits, conducted tests of various types of fuel for firing porcelain, drafted and built furnaces and furnaces, invented the recipe for paints on porcelain and solved many related issues. It can be said that all technological process he had to develop the production of porcelain himself and, in addition, at the same time prepare his assistants, successors and employees of various qualifications and profiles.

As a result of “diligent work” (as he himself assessed his work), original Russian porcelain was created. The factory has achieved great success both in terms of the quality of porcelain and the variety of products made from it. In conclusion, it should be noted that M.V. Lomonosov also took a considerable part in the creation of original porcelain in Russia, although his share in this matter was incomparably less than D.I. Vinogradova. That, however, did not prevent later to name the Imperial Plant in the name of Lomonosov, and not Vinogradov.

Marking of porcelain products

Marking, as a way of indicating that a product belongs to a particular production, began to be used in Europe soon after the creation of large ceramic manufactories. But long before that, for example, Oriental (Japanese and Chinese) stamps were reproduced on the Delft faience of the 17th century. By the way, the largest European porcelain factories - Meissen and Vienna - started with the same brands.

The original stamps were introduced for the first time in Europe at the Meissen manufactory in 1723-24. Following this, other factories began to label their products. The stamps, as a rule, were underglaze blue and were placed at the bottom of the item. For a long time, the presence or absence of a mark was at the discretion of the porcelain manufacturers themselves, and only in the last third of the 18th century in the main manufacturing countries (France, Germany, Austria) did marking become mandatory, moreover, marks had to be registered in the respective public services.

With the increase in the number of porcelain production in Europe and the recognition of obvious leadership, and, consequently, the greatest value of products from Sevres, Meissen, Vienna and some other manufactories, such a marking function as protection against imitation and forgery began to come to the fore. For this purpose, for example, in the 19th century, Sevres, Vienna and Berlin introduced the practice of double marking: one mark - usually blue underglaze - was placed during the manufacture of the product, the second - most often red - during its overglaze decoration.

An example of early Ming dynasty porcelain markings

If we talk about the content of brands, then with all their diversity, the following main elements can be distinguished: the names of factories or cities (localities) where they are located; surnames, initials or monograms of owners or their high patrons; heraldic motifs - crowns, emblems or parts of emblems; figures of animals, birds, fish; flowers or other plants; ships, anchors, other marine motifs; castles and various buildings; religious or mythological motifs; various emblems and symbols; geometric figures.

If the product is not marked, then it is necessary to determine it by the method of execution, the shape, the nature of the shard, the color of the glaze and the style of decor. Porcelain and earthenware labels are collected in special reference books and catalogs.

P.S. According to historians, a porcelain cup with a handle - the one that we fill with fragrant tea every day - appeared not so long ago. This truly important event took place around 1730 in Vienna, when some inventive and enterprising porcelain craftsman came up with the idea of equipping the Chinese gaiwan (bowl) with a side handle, and this design became more convenient for Europeans - after all, before that, they had been drinking for many years coffee from metal cups with a handle, and water, beer or milk from mugs.

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