On the history of trade in Soviet times. Russian retail chains as a format of modern retail. Focus on consumption

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However, the bony hand of hunger and scarcity grabbed them by the throat so much that Lenin had to step on the throat of even his fanatical supporters and announce the NEP. But now Stalin is in power, and by the beginning of the 30s he returns the Soviet communists, so to speak, to the "true path" public property on the means of production and so on.

The fight against the private trader began around 1926-1927. In 1930, the share of the private trader in the turnover decreased to 5.6%, and in 1931 it practically disappeared. “If trade at the first stage of the NEP,” Comrade Stalin said at the January (1933) plenum of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, “allowed the revival of capitalism and the functioning of the private capitalist sector in trade, then Soviet trade proceeds from the denial of both another. What is Soviet trade? Soviet trade is trade without capitalists, small and large, trade without speculators, small and large. This is a special kind of trade, which history has not known until now and which is practiced only by us, the Bolsheviks, in the conditions of Soviet development.

As an inevitable consequence of this dubious "victory over the private trader" already in 1928-1929. card trading system was created. It was caused by a severe shortage of many essential, primarily food, goods. By the end of 1929, the ration card system was extended to almost all foodstuffs, and then to industrial goods, especially clothing and footwear. Instead of free purchase and sale of goods, merchandising took place, which was carried out according to the so-called "taking documents" through closed distributors, closed workers' cooperatives, departments of workers' supply. Each region had its own form, its own procedure for issuing all kinds of cards. Different categories of the population were established, for each category their own supply standards were determined. For absenteeism and leaving the enterprise, the worker was deprived of his card. There were special shops to which the best factory shops were attached. So hunger and the distribution system became the most important factor in the obedience of citizens to power. However, this already took place during the Civil War.

From Special Report No. 2 INFO OGPU:
Plant "Red Shtampovshchik". At the rally devoted to the issues of the "Appeal of the Central Committee", out of 200 people, only 12 people voted for self-reinforcement. Regarding shock work, one worker spoke as follows: “You can work like a shock if you sing like a shock, but you will be shod and dressed, but with a hungry belly and with a warrant in your pocket you won’t hit very hard.”
Trumppark them. Konyashin. During a meeting of drummers, one of the workers said: "What kind of competition can there be when we are all hungry and work for nothing." The speech was met with applause from part of the congregation.

On March 15, 1930, taking into account local excesses, the Central Committee of the Party, in a letter to all the Central Committees of the National Communist Parties, regional, regional, district and district committees of the party "On the fight against distortions of the party line in the collective farm movement," obliges local party organizations: “Prohibit the closure of markets, restore bazaars and not hinder the sale by peasants, including collective farmers, of their products on the market”

As you can see, in a fierce struggle with a private trader, in some places in Soviet cities they even closed traditional food markets, where peasants sold their products to townspeople for thousands of years ...

The fight against the private trader was going on both in the city and in the countryside. I had to involve significant forces of repressive organs. The most large-scale action took place, of course, in the countryside, because the authorities decided not only to take away the property from the strongest peasants, but also to liquidate the peasants themselves as independent owners independent of the authorities. According to the doctor of historical sciences, a well-known researcher of repressions V.N. Zemskov, in total about 4 million people were dispossessed, of which 2.5 million went to kulak exile in 1930-1940, during this period 600 thousand people died in exile.

In May 1931, a document of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR and the Central Union states: “... The consumer cooperation has forgotten that the ousting of the private trader and private trade does not mean the destruction of all trade, that, on the contrary, the ousting of private trade presupposes the all-round development of Soviet trade and the deployment of a network of cooperative and state trade organizations throughout the USSR.” Well, still, because 1931-1933. These are years of terrible famine with millions of deaths. The authorities had to say something about this, and decided to shift the blame on the negligent Soviet cooperatives, who could not replace private traders in the food trade.

The size of the food shortage in the country is evidenced by the facts of a sharp reduction by 1933 of state stocks of food grains. On February 9, 1931, according to the People's Commissar of Supply of the USSR A.I. Mikoyan, there were 1011 million poods of food on the balance sheet; in January 1933, their actual presence, according to the results of the inventory carried out by the Committee of Reserves at the STO of the USSR, amounted to 342 million poods, i.e. decreased by almost 3 times.

Hunger forced the workers to go to canteens with their whole families, otherwise it was impossible to survive. But the situation in the dining rooms was the same ...

From Special Report No. 23 INFO OGPU on interruptions in the supply of industrial districts and cities:
"Moscow district. In the canteen of the Needle Factory, oatmeal porridge made from poor-quality cereals is served daily. Due to malnutrition, there were 4 cases of fainting with female workers.

In the canteen of brick factories No. 21 and 26 (Podolsky district), a number of cases of making food from spoiled meat and rotten vobla were noted.

Leningrad region. Factory "Renaissance". In the factory canteen almost every day about 50 workers go without lunch. Bandwidth the dining room is small due to lack of crockery.

At the Shipyard (Stalingrad), cases were noted when there was no bread in the shops for 2-3 days ... Tractor plant(Stalingrad). There is no place to repair shoes, many workers have to walk without shoes ... When the distribution of white bread was introduced in Stalingrad, queues at the distributors reached up to 1000 people ... Staging Catering in the canteens of the CRC of Astrakhan and Stalingrad continues to deteriorate ... Traktorostroy. The meals delivered to the construction site are messy, especially the pea soup, which is available almost daily."

Market relations, greatly reduced by the state, continued to exist in commercial trade, the Torgsin system and the collective farm market. In 1929, "commercial" shops appeared in the USSR. These were state-owned stores, where goods were sold without cards, but at higher prices, which, on average, were 3-4 times higher than the prices for products sold with cards. In 1932, "commercial" stores accounted for a tenth of the country's retail turnover.

In 1931 to the network commercial stores TORGSIN joined. In the hungry year of 1933, people brought 45 tons of pure gold and almost 1.5 tons of silver to the Torgsin network. With these funds, they purchased 235,000 tons of flour, 65,000 tons of cereals and rice, and 25,000 tons of sugar. In 1933, food accounted for 80% of all goods sold in Torgsin, with cheap rye flour accounting for almost half of all sales. The starving people exchanged their last savings for bread. Torgsin's analysis of prices shows that during the famine, the Bolsheviks sold food to their subject citizens much more expensive than abroad. In 1933, Torgsin twice raised the price of bread and flour, but the demand for these products did not fall. This year, in Torgsin, bread among the goods had the highest foreign exchange profitability: in the first half of 1933, Torgsin's revenue from the bread / flour group exceeded their export price by more than 5 times! Due to the terrible famine, Torgsin in 1933 came out on top among all Soviet exporters in terms of gross foreign exchange earnings. People went to great lengths to survive. So the Bolsheviks proved in practice the truth of the well-known saying that at 300% there is no such crime that capital would not risk committing. And in this story, the profit was much more than 300%!

As you can see, the Stalinist government decided to make money on people instead of a private trader. In the absence of free competition, it could inflate prices almost limitlessly, and did so during the period of famine completely shamelessly.

Sources:

1. I.V. Stalin, "Issues of Leninism", ed. 11th, p. 390.

2. Special report No. 2 INFO OGPU on the facts of a negative nature in the course of the implementation of the appeal of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of September 3, 1930 November 14, 1930

Retail trade in the USSR

In the early years of Soviet power, the problem of organizing the food supply for the working people was especially acute. The first measures of the Soviet state were the introduction of workers' control over production and distribution, the creation on October 26 (November 8), 1917 of the People's Commissariat for Food (Narkomprod) to ensure a centralized supply of goods to the population and organize the procurement of agricultural products. In May - June 1918, in connection with the aggravation of supply difficulties, emergency measures were taken to solve the food issue. The "Decree on food dictatorship" was adopted, which granted the people's commissar of food emergency powers to fight the rural bourgeoisie, who hid grain and speculated in it; decrees on the reorganization of the People's Commissariat for Food and its local bodies and on the organization of committees of the rural poor (kombeds). Much attention was paid consumer cooperation, which was attracted to trade service the entire population. In 1918, a state monopoly was established on trade in the most important consumer goods (bread, salt, sugar, textiles, etc.), and a ban on private trade was introduced. Trading networks and wholesale warehouses were transferred to the People's Commissariat for Food and its local bodies. These measures undermined the economic positions of the capitalist elements, the struggle against speculation intensified, and opportunities were created for improving the supply of the working people. During the Civil War and foreign intervention of 1918-20. a centralized rationed distribution of consumer goods was established (i.e., in fact, the "card system", introduced for the first time by the Provisional Government in 1917, was revived). The main form of procurement of agricultural products was the "food allocation" introduced in 1919, which made it possible to concentrate in the hands of the state the necessary resources to supply the workers of industrial centers and the army.

With the transition to a new economic policy(NEP) in 1921, the "surplus appraisal" was replaced by a food tax, small private trade was again allowed, but subject to strict control by the relevant state structures. With its revival, the need for a card system disappeared. importance and high economic efficiency private petty trade proves the fact that, as of 1924, the private sector owned 88% of enterprises retail, its share in the retail turnover was 53%. Organization of internal trade and regulation of market relations on a global scale National economy The Soviet state began with wholesale trade. Sales of products big industry its governing bodies were engaged: since 1922, a special apparatus, industry syndicates and other state organizations (commodity exchanges, fairs, etc.) began to be created. major role cooperative trade also played in the wholesale trade during this period. With the strengthening of socialist forms of economy in the country's economy, the development of state and cooperative trade, private intermediaries were squeezed out, first of all from wholesale, and then from retail trade. This was facilitated by the government's policy of taxes, tariffs, credit, price reduction, financial assistance cooperation and other economic measures.

The transition to industrialization, the growth of the urban population and cash income significantly increased the demand for goods, and small-scale Agriculture could not ensure a rapid increase in the production of food and industrial raw materials. This necessitated the transition in 1928 to a rationed supply of the population with basic goods on cards. As the state commodity resources increased, "commercial" trade at higher prices was introduced. Along with the development of cooperative trade, state retail trade grew. Since 1928, the creation of “closed” distributors began, supplying goods to workers and employees, enterprises “attached” to them, and in 1932 they were replaced by labor supply departments (ORSs). Collective-farm trade was allowed, not planned by the state, where prices were set under the influence of supply and demand. As a result of the increase in commodity resources and the development of trade in 1935, the card system was finally abolished and a free trade was established. open trade. In 1935-1941 uniform state retail prices were introduced; the trading apparatus was restructured organizationally. The ORS enterprises and the cooperative trade network in the cities were transferred to state trade organizations. The main area of ​​activity of consumer cooperatives was the development of trade in the countryside. Volume retail trade state and cooperative trade for 1928-40 increased by 2.3 times; the number of retail and public catering enterprises increased from 170 thousand to 495 thousand. The turnover of public catering enterprises in 1940 was 13% of the total turnover of state and cooperative trade. The share of socialized forms of trade in total volume retail trade.

During the Great Patriotic War up to 77 million people were covered by the state rationed supply system. The share of public catering in retail trade almost doubled. On the industrial enterprises ORSs were organized again. All the years of the war, ration prices for basic foodstuffs and industrial goods remained at the pre-war level. In the collective farm markets at the beginning of the war, prices rose, but already in 1944 their level dropped noticeably due to the "commercial" trade in food and industrial goods. Significantly reduced in 1942 (compared to 1940), retail trade turnover has been continuously increasing since 1943, and by 1945 it reached the level of 200%. At the same time, trade turnover in the eastern regions grew faster than in the country as a whole.

Despite the enormous difficulties caused by the war, open trade was established at the end of 1947. A major role in this was played by the preparation of an appropriate technical base, the restoration and expansion of fixed assets of domestic trade, and the selection and training of sales personnel. By 1950 centralized retail chains fully recovered, and the trade turnover exceeded the pre-war level (the 1950 figure was 107% of the 1940 level).

Thus, the main specific feature of the Soviet store retail trade can be called its complete subordination to centralized state structures. The process of trade centralization began in the USSR in the second half of the 1920s, immediately after the end of the New Economic Policy. As a result, the share of the private sector in retail trade first declined from 50% in 1924 to 30% in 1927. And in 1932, private trade was completely prohibited by law. The same fate befell the cooperative trading sector: if in the same 1932, its share, against the background of a decrease in the number of private traders, increased to almost 60% of the total trade turnover, by 1940 this figure barely reached 25%.

Is it true that in the Soviet Union there were barrels of black caviar in every store, and it cost a penny? What was hard to get? Were there queues? Was it possible to get normal products without blat? Is it true that the bread tasted better?

I remember almost nothing about Soviet stores: I was too young, and my parents did not take me to them. From the 90s, I only remember that I had to walk through the forest on the Moscow Ring Road for some bananas. Why it was necessary to go after them, I still don’t understand, no one ate them anyway. I also remember that on Tverskaya there was a very cool shop "SvitSvitVey", where they sold foreign sweets by weight.

With the advent of Soviet rule, private stores begin to rapidly disappear, and a centralized distribution system appears in their place. In those years, food cards began to be introduced for citizens. They operated for several years after the revolution, then they were canceled, and then reintroduced in 1929.

Shops on Pyatnitskaya street, 1922-1929

Facade of a bookstore, 1920-1929

In 1932, private trade was banned at the legislative level. And the products were distributed depending on what the person was doing. The workers and their families lived best of all: they belonged to the first category and received 800 g of bread per day. The second category - employees, they received 300 g each. Disabled people and pensioners received 200 g each. And church employees and parasites received nothing at all.

At the showcase of the shoe department of the Central Department Store, 1934

In 1935, life in the country more or less improved, there were a lot of goods, and the authorities decided to abolish cards and establish free trade. Over the next six years (until the start of the Great Patriotic War), the state independently introduced and regulated all retail prices.

Showcase, 1939

"Metropol" and advertising "Aeroflot", 1939. Officially, by this year, Aeroflot had already existed for 7 years. During this time, he managed to save the Chelyuskinites and fly from Moscow to the USA via the North Pole.

Metropol bookstore, 1939

With the beginning of the Great Patriotic War, most material resources redirected to the military. In 1941, the authorities reintroduced cards for bread, cereals, sugar, butter, clothes and shoes. The largest portions were received by workers of military factories, mining and chemical industries. But even with cards, food was often impossible to get.

The cards were valid until the end of 1947. This year, the country held a denomination and re-established open trade.

Showcase of the Eliseevsky grocery store, 1947. It was one of the most famous Soviet grocery stores.

The store was founded in 1901, then it was called "Eliseev's store and cellars of Russian and foreign wines". For the first few years after the revolution, it was closed, and in the 1920s it was reopened and renamed Deli No. 1. There was a huge assortment of goods and rare goods often appeared, which was very unusual in the conditions of post-war shortages.

It is said that this is where the tradition of putting goods in a pyramid came from.

The grocery store, like all other stores, worked on a rationing system in the war and post-war years. But in 1944, a commercial department was also opened in it, in which goods were sold for money. The prices here were exorbitant, but the department still attracted great amount visitors. It all ended with the fact that in the 50s the head of the commercial department of a grocery store was convicted of a large amount of unearned income acquired by deceiving customers.

At the tobacco showcase on Gorky Street, 1947

The party organs also dealt with the publication and distribution of books in the USSR. Before printing, all literature passed through the hands of censors, many works and authors were not allowed to print at all. But on the other hand, books were very cheap, and in general, reading was very popular among the people. At the window of the Moscow bookstore.

At the showcase with oriental souvenirs, 1947

Shop on Taganskaya Square, 1951. It was called simply - "Products". In those years, the names were not particularly original, and most of the stores were called "Bread", "Milk", "Meat", "Fish" and so on.

And here is a shot from the Mosovoshch store (or Mosovoshch, as it is written in the photo)

GUM, showcase of samples in the section for the sale of haberdashery goods without the help of a seller, 1954. In the 30s, the GUM building was going to be demolished, but then they changed their minds. In the early 50s, it was restored, and in 1953 GUM reopened to customers.

Kutuzovsky prospect, house 18. Showcase with crockery. A residential building with shops on the ground floor since its construction was popularly called the "Pink Department Store". After opening, the Pink Department Store was the most popular store in the area, with everything from coats to needles. Well, dishes too. This is 1958.

In the same place, a showcase with TVs. It seems that these are "Rubies", they just began to be produced in 1957. They did not become a scarce commodity because they were worth several monthly salaries. Few could afford such a luxury.

Radio goods store on Gorky Street, 1960

In 1961, the authorities carried out another monetary reform. 10 rubles of the old sample were equal in value to one ruble of the new sample, while its value in gold and dollar terms fell sharply. Because of this, prices for jewelry, imported products and some domestic goods and products jumped sharply.

Shop window "Dietary Products" on Gorky Street. "Natural burbot and cod liver. Canned food in its own juice contains fish oil and vitamin D. Recommended for nutrition with rickets, for enhanced nutrition with tuberculosis and to accelerate the healing of bone fractures."

Showcase with cameras

Showcase with clock

Shop "Efir" with TVs. Look at prices. The average salary in the 60s was 80-90 rubles.

Shop "Cheese"

Showcase of the store "Russian Wines" on Gorky Street. Judging by the memories, the walls inside the store were painted with bunches of grapes, Elbrus and poplars in the Sots Art style, and the floor was covered with sawdust.

In conditions of commodity shortages, collective farm markets helped people a lot. They were either covered pavilions or open rows of stalls. Here they traded meat, milk, vegetables, fruits, potatoes and canned food. Representatives of collective farms and state farms and simple people who grew crops in their country house. Per trading place it was necessary to pay, and in return, the market management provided everything necessary - scales, trading equipment and all sorts of other little things. Private sellers set prices depending on demand, and it was customary to bargain. Danilovsky collective farm market, 1959.

Shop "Wanda" on Petrovka, 1960s. In the 70s, this store became one of the main speculators in Moscow. In the gateway next to the "Wanda" there was a women's toilet, in which speculators sold Polish lipstick, mascara, tights and perfume to women.

Showcase "Toy House" on Kutuzovsky Prospekt, 1960.

Shop window "Toy House", 1964-1972

Salon for newlyweds on Mira Avenue, 1961

Department store "Moscow", 1963

It was the first store in the USSR designed according to the Western model of a shopping center. Advertisements were played on the radio and TV inside.

The department store was opened as an experiment. Here besides commercial premises there was an information and training center, a showroom for displaying new clothing collections and lecture audiences.

Showcases of the department store "Moscow" in 1968

Counter and showcase department store "Moscow" in the 70s

Shop "Lyudmila", 1965. This is one of the brand stores. retail network"Mosodezhda". Other stores in the chain were called "Moskvichka", "Lyudmila", "Tatiana" and "Ruslan", there were about 80 of them in total.

Running street, 1969

Gorkogo Street. Moscow windows. Shop "Men's Fashion", 1970

Gastronome "Novoarbatsky"

In the favorite store of Vladimir Vysotsky on Malaya Gruzinskaya, 29

Beryozka gastronome is a network of stores that sold food and other goods for foreign currency or "Vneshtorgbang checks". "Beryozka" was established in 1964, and it existed until the 1990s. The photo was taken in 1974.

In the 70s, supermarkets began to open en masse in the USSR. They were located in typical rectangular buildings, and inside, towards the cash registers, there were long racks. Service system in Soviet supermarkets was pretty complicated. With the collected goods, it was necessary to come to the department, the seller weighed and counted everything, and then wrote the price to the buyer on a piece of paper. Then with this paper it was necessary to go to the cashier and pay for everything. And then with a check from the cash register, the buyer returned to the first department and took the purchase. Supermarket in Lublino, 1974

Store in Tushino, 1974

Grocery store on Dimitrova street, 1974

"House of Toys", 1975. It was this year that the creator of "What? Where? When?" Vladimir Voroshilov bought the first spinning top for the game here.

Men's coats in GUM, 1975

In the 70s, the turnover in the country grew rapidly, and new stores opened everywhere. In particular, these are new supermarkets and department stores, stores with the names "Everything for Women", "Everything for Men" and "Everything for Home". Between 1961 and 1975 the number of retail space doubled. There is a new trade and cash equipment.

Shop "Orbita"

Interior of the store "Ocean" in Ostankino, 1977

Voentorg on Kalinin Avenue - the country's main military department store, 1979

Shop "Tick-tock", 1982

Shop "Canned food", 1982

TSUM

GUM

GUM, grocery store window, 1984

Department store in the village of Vostochny, 1985

Showcase GUM, 1985

Stall with stockings, 1986

Department store "Children's World", 1986

Pedknigi house on Pushkinskaya, 1986

Passage of the Art Theater (Kamergersky Lane), 1986

At the window of "Children's World", 1987

"Children's World", 1987

During the period of perestroika, the deficit began to grow again in the country. Unsuccessful and inconsistent reforms led to this. For example, in 1987 the authorities abolished the state monopoly on foreign trade, and then many enterprises began to send their goods abroad, earning much more on this than if they were bought by Soviet citizens.

Shop "Diet", 1987-1989

Showcase on the Arbat

Shop "Melody", 1989. It was located in house 22 on Novy Arbat (formerly Kalinin Avenue), next to the Oktyabr cinema. They sold records, reels and cassettes. Melodiya shops were called in those years Record Houses, there were 18 of them in the Soviet Union, but the company's products could be bought not only there. Simpler records were sold at the Soyuzpechat kiosks, and even earlier it was fashionable to order records by mail.

Department store "Moscow"

Kiosks on Kolkhoznaya Square, 1990

At the checkout at Children's world", 1991

Internal trade plays an important role in raising the living standards of the population of the USSR. Its development is characterized by high and stable rates corresponding to the growth of incomes and effective demand of the population. In 1975, about four-fifths of all material goods for personal consumption were sold through domestic trade. More than 7% of all workers and employees of the national economy are employed in trade and public catering.

AT pre-revolutionary Russia dominated by private trade. In 1913, almost three-fourths of the country's total trade was in cities, where only 18% of the population lived. Low purchasing power rural population forced the Russian bourgeoisie to look for foreign markets. During the years of World War I (1914-18), the production of goods declined. By 1917 the prices of manufactured goods had increased by 4.3 times compared with 1913 (5 times for clothes and footwear), and by 5.6 times for foodstuffs. From March 1917 the bourgeois Provisional Government introduced a card system. Speculation developed. There was a food crisis in the country.

In the early years of Soviet power, the problem of organizing the food supply for the working people was especially acute. The first measures of the Soviet state were the introduction of workers' control over production and distribution, the creation on October 26 (November 8), 1917, of the People's Commissariat for Food (Narkomprod) to ensure a centralized supply of goods to the population and organize the procurement of agricultural products. In May-June 1918, in connection with the aggravation of supply difficulties, emergency measures were taken to solve the food problem. The following were adopted: the Decree on Food Dictatorship, which gave the People's Commissar of Food extraordinary powers to fight the rural bourgeoisie, who hid grain and speculated in it; decrees on the reorganization of the People's Commissariat for Food and its local bodies and on the organization of committees of the rural poor (kombeds). Much attention was paid to consumer cooperation, which was involved in trade services for the entire population. In 1918 a state monopoly was established on the trade in the most important consumer goods (bread, salt, sugar, textiles, etc.). Private trade was prohibited. The trading network and wholesale warehouses were transferred to the People's Commissariat for Food and its local bodies. These measures undermined the economic positions of the capitalist elements, the struggle against speculation intensified, and opportunities were created for improving the supply of the working people. During the period of the Civil War and foreign intervention of 1918-20, a centralized rationed distribution of consumer goods (the ration card system) was established. The food allocation, introduced in 1919, became the main form of procurement of agricultural products, which made it possible to concentrate in the hands of the state the necessary resources to supply workers in industrial centers and the army.

With the transition to the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, the surplus appropriation was replaced by a food tax, petty private trade was allowed under state control, and the card system was abolished. In 1924, the private sector owned 88% of retail trade enterprises, and its share in retail trade turnover was 53%. The organization of internal trade and the regulation of market relations on the scale of the entire national economy, the Soviet state began with wholesale trade. The marketing of the products of large-scale industry was handled by its governing bodies. Since 1922, a special apparatus began to be created: industry syndicates and other state organizations (commodity exchanges and fairs). Cooperative trade also played a major role in wholesale trade during this period. With the strengthening of socialist forms of economy in the country's economy, the development of state and cooperative trade, private intermediaries were squeezed out, first of all from wholesale, and then from retail trade. This was facilitated by the government's policy of taxes, tariffs, credit, price reduction, financial assistance to cooperation and other economic measures.

The gradual strengthening of the positions of socialized trade made it possible already in 1925-26 to move on to planning the importation of the most important consumer goods to the main economic regions and to strengthen the role of the planned principle in market relations. At the same time, the private sector was being squeezed out of the procurement sector. As a result, by the end of 1927, the socialized sector of domestic trade accounted for over 65% of the trade turnover. The question of "who - whom" in this sphere of the economy was decided in favor of socialism. Significant development was gained by contracting, which was used in the system of procurement of agricultural products. In 1931 private trade ceased to exist; in 1932 it was banned by law. If large wholesale trade is concentrated in the hands of government organizations, then in the field of retail trade, consumer cooperation began to play a predominant role, replacing private resellers.

The transition to industrialization, the growth of the urban population and monetary income means. increased the demand for goods, and small-scale agriculture could not ensure a rapid increase in the production of food and industrial raw materials. This necessitated the transition in 1928 to a rationed supply of the population with basic goods on the basis of cards. As the state commodity resources increased, "commercial" trade at higher prices was introduced. Along with the development of cooperative trade, state retail trade grew. Since 1928, closed distributors were created to supply goods to workers and employees of enterprises attached to them; in 1932 they were replaced by work supply departments (ORSs). Demonstration department stores, grocery stores, a number of specialized stores selling food and beverage products were organized. light industry and others. A network of wholesale and marketing bases of industry was created. Collective-farm trade was allowed, not planned by the state, where prices were set under the influence of supply and demand. As a result of the increase in commodity resources and the development of trade, the card system was abolished in 1935 and free open trade was established. In 1935-1941 uniform state retail prices were introduced; the trading apparatus was restructured organizationally. The ORS enterprises and the cooperative trade network in the cities were transferred to state trade organizations. The main area of ​​activity of consumer cooperatives was the development of trade in the countryside.

The volume of retail trade in state and cooperative trade increased 2.3 times between 1928 and 1940; the number of retail trade and public catering enterprises increased from 170,000 to 495,000. In 1940, the turnover of public catering enterprises accounted for 13% of the total turnover of state and cooperative trade. The share of socialized forms of trade in the total volume of retail trade increased (see Table 1).

During the Great Patriotic War of 1941-45, up to 77 million people were covered by the state rationed supply system. The share of public catering in retail trade almost doubled. ORSs were again organized at industrial enterprises. All the years of the war, ration prices for basic foodstuffs and industrial goods remained at the pre-war level. At the beginning of the war, prices on the collective-farm markets rose, but already in 1944 their level dropped noticeably due to the "commercial" trade in food and industrial goods. Significantly reduced in 1942 in comparison with 1940, retail trade turnover began to grow continuously from 1943, in 1945 it doubled compared to 1942. At the same time, trade turnover in the eastern regions grew faster than in the country as a whole.

Tab. 1. -- The share of individual forms of trade in actual prices in the total volume of trade,%

Despite the enormous difficulties caused by the war, at the end of 1947 the card system was abolished (introduced in 1941) and open trade was established. A major role in this was played by the preparation of an appropriate technical base, the restoration and expansion of fixed assets of domestic trade, and the selection and training of sales personnel. By 1950, the trading network was restored and the pre-war level of retail trade was surpassed. Its volume in 1950 reached 107% of the level of 1940.

The main form of Soviet trade is state trade based on public property. Through it, the predominant mass of goods entering the domestic market, it plays a leading role in the retail trade turnover of the country (see Table 2). State trade mainly serves the urban population; through its organizations, a significant part of potatoes, vegetables, melons and fruits is also purchased from collective farms and state farms.

Cooperative trade mainly serves the rural population through consumer cooperation, which also purchases agricultural products (eggs, wool, furs and some other raw materials, potatoes, vegetables, gourds, fruits, etc.) from collective farms, state farms and the rural population. Consumer cooperatives also conduct commission trade in agricultural products, mainly in cities, at prices, as a rule, somewhat higher than state retail prices, but lower than prices on the collective farm market.

Tab. 2. -- Retail turnover of state and cooperative trade

Along with state and cooperative trade, collective-farm trade is carried on—the sale by collective farms, collective farmers, and other citizens of surplus agricultural produce at collective-farm markets. State and cooperative retail trade influences the collective-farm market: the better and more fully the demand is satisfied through state trade, the lower the demand for the products of the collective-farm market and the lower the level of market prices. In relation between various forms trade in consumer goods, a certain trend is revealed: the role of state trade is growing, while the collective farm market is decreasing, with a certain stabilization of the share of cooperative trade in the country's total trade turnover (see Table 3).

Tab. 3. -- The share of state, cooperative and collective farm trade in actual prices in the total volume of retail trade turnover,%

Tab. 4. -- The ratio of food and not food products in the total turnover of state and cooperative trade, %

The development of domestic trade is due to the expansion of production of goods and an increase in the population's cash income and is characterized by the dynamics of retail trade turnover, for which high growth rates are natural. Thus, in 1975 retail trade turnover was 8.5 times the volume of trade turnover in 1940, and in terms of per capita it increased from 92 rubles. up to 827 rubles. (in the prices of the corresponding years). Retail trade is characterized by progressive qualities. changes in the commodity structure, reflecting the growth of the material well-being and cultural level of the population (see the section The well-being of the people (See USSR. The well-being of the people)). This is expressed, first of all, in an increase in the share of non-food products in the total volume of trade (see Table 4), and within this group - the share of cultural and household goods and household items (radio, electrical, sports goods, furniture, dishes and etc.). In the group of food products, the share of more nutritious products (meat, fish, dairy products, eggs, vegetables, fruits) is growing, and the share of bread products and potatoes is decreasing.

Tab. 5. -- Retail turnover of state and cooperative trade, including public catering, across the union republics, billion rubles.

The regularity of the development of trade turnover is a higher rate of its growth per capita in countryside compared with cities, it contributes to the gradual convergence of the living conditions of the urban and rural population (in 1940, the trade turnover per capita of the urban population was 5.2 times higher than in the countryside, in 1960 - 3.2 times, and in 1975 - in 2.3 times). The rapid development of the economy and culture of the Union republics also leads to higher rates of growth in trade turnover in these republics (see Table 5).

Public catering is a large specific branch of domestic trade, which combines the functions of production, sale of prepared food and organization of its consumption by the population. It is an important link in the system of social and economic measures of the state, has a significant impact on saving time, increasing labor productivity, has great importance in the socialist reorganization of life, contributes to the enhancement of the role of women in social production making their household chores easier. The turnover of public catering is constantly increasing (see Table 6). An important economic indicator of the efficiency of domestic trade is the circulation costs associated with the costs of bringing goods from production to the consumer (see Table 7). The overall level of distribution costs for the total retail turnover (including catering) fell from 11% in 1940 to 9% in 1975.

Tab. 6. -- Development of public catering

The material and technical base of retail trade includes an extensive network of shops, canteens, cafes, restaurants and eateries. From the end of the 50s. the material and technical base of domestic trade has expanded and strengthened (more productive types of trade equipment, new technological processes and methods of selling goods have been introduced). In retail trade, mainly supermarkets, department stores, complex demand stores (“Everything for Men”, “Everything for Women”, “Everything for the Home”, etc.), as well as specialized stores selling a diverse range of goods with progressive trading methods, are being created. and public services (self-service, sale of goods according to samples). These shops are equipped with modern commercial equipment, intended for the delivery and sale of goods without additional repackaging, refrigerated and cash register equipment, means of complex mechanization for the movement of goods at all stages of the commercial technological process. In the 60-70s. a modern trading network and a public catering network, large warehouse complexes, refrigerators, vegetable, potato, fruit storage facilities, etc. have been created. During this period, large Shopping centers, both urban and rural, began the creation of specialized trading houses. The industry is equipped with electronic equipment. For 1961--75 trading area stores doubled (see Table 8), the provision of the population with a trading network (per 1,000 inhabitants) increased by 88%, and the overall indicators of the development of domestic trade increased (see Table 9).

As of January 1, 1976, the turnover of stores using progressive methods of selling goods amounted to 58% of the total turnover, including 48% of self-service sales. In addition, such forms of trade as pre-order sales, credit sales, home delivery of goods are used; mail order business, etc.

In the wholesale trade, large mechanized warehouses with high-altitude storage of goods (storage area up to 25 thousand m2), distribution refrigerators with a capacity of up to 15 thousand tons, storage facilities for potatoes, vegetables and fruits with a capacity of up to 10 thousand tons with active and general ventilation devices are used complex mechanization and automation of the main technological processes transportation, storage and commodity processing, package and container transportation are used, methods of centralized delivery of goods to retailers are introduced according to rational schemes for the movement of goods; created automated systems management (ACS) of technological and commercial operations. In public catering, industrial methods of work are being introduced using semi-finished products and progressive technology processing of raw materials and food preparation based on the mechanization of all labor processes; production is intensified. processes based on high-performance conveyor equipment based on the achievements of science and technology in processing technology food products(microwave and infrared heating, etc.). Public catering establishments are transferred to the service set meals, are equipped with sectional modulated equipment, the latest types of thermal and technological equipment, unified functional packaging, mechanized lines for distributing lunches such as "Effect", "Slavyanka", "Progress", which increase labor productivity by 1.5-2 times.

Trade advertising plays an important role in the development of domestic trade. Advertising services have been set up in state and cooperative trade, in industrial ministries and departments whose enterprises produce consumer goods, in the Ministry of Consumer Services, etc. There are specialized advertising organizations in the state trade system. The Interdepartmental Council for Advertising under the Ministry of Trade of the USSR coordinates promotional activities various departments and organizations in the country.

Organization of internal trade. Organizational top management government controlled of internal trade and the center of the entire trading system is the Ministry of Trade of the USSR, which, through the main departments, ministries of trade of the Union and Autonomous Republics, trade and public catering management bodies of the executive committees of local Soviets, coordinates the development of wholesale, retail trade and public catering, regulates trading activity other ministries and departments. Separate trading systems have their own central governing bodies (the Central Union of the USSR, the Glavursy of industrial ministries, the Main Directorate of Book Trade, etc.).

Table 7. -- Distribution costs in trade (in % of turnover)

Tab. 8 -- Development of trade and warehouse network

Tab. 9 -- Main indicators of the development of trade for 1960-75

Wholesale trade is concentrated in the republican ministries of trade, which have specialized enterprises and associations for wholesale trade in certain groups of goods: Meat and fish trade, Grocery, Textile trade, Trade clothes, Footwear trade, Haberdashery, Kultorg, Household trade. Wholesale trade has a network of trade depots, refrigerators, cold storage facilities located in the areas of production and consumption of goods. The wholesale trade of consumer cooperatives is headed by the Central Union of the USSR and has an intradepartmental character. The main part of wholesale operations in consumer cooperatives is carried out by universal inter-district bases of regional (territorial) and republican unions of consumer societies and warehouses of district consumer unions. Wholesale some other consumer goods are also managed by a number of other ministries and departments of the USSR: the Ministry of Procurement of the USSR (bread products), the Ministry Food Industry USSR (oil and fat products), Ministry of Fisheries of the USSR (fish products), Gossnab of the USSR. In addition to trade in consumer goods, there are wholesale organizations procurement, procurement and marketing of agricultural products and raw materials, logistics.