home › Decor › §5. state industry. The birth of the manufacture. Formation of the all-Russian market The initial period of the formation of the all-Russian internal market

§5. state industry. The birth of the manufacture. Formation of the all-Russian market The initial period of the formation of the all-Russian internal market

An important element in the formation of the All-Russian market was the creation of a single monetary system in the country. Until the end of the 15th century, practically all the principalities of Russia - Tver, Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod, etc., were engaged in minting coins independently.
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Prince Ivan III began to prohibit the minting of money to all the princes who were part of a single state. He approved the Moscow money issue. The inscription appeared on Moscow coins: ʼʼSovereign of all Russiaʼʼ. But the parallel money issue in Veliky Novgorod continued until the time

Ivan IV. His mother Elena Glinskaya, the widow of Vasily III, in 1534 took certain steps towards the creation of a unified monetary system. She introduced strict rules for minting coins according to standard samples (weight, design), and violation of these standards was severely punished.

Under Elena Glinskaya, small silver coins were issued, on which a horseman with a sword in his hands was depicted - sword money. On dengs of a larger weight, a rider-warrior was depicted, striking a snake with a spear - spear dengs, which later became known as a penny. These coins were irregularly shaped, the size of a watermelon seed. Smaller coins were also issued - half-coins, or 1/4 kopecks, with the image of a bird, etc.
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Until the end of the 16th century, the year of issue was not indicated on the coins. Under Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, they began to beat out the date ʼʼfrom the creation of the worldʼʼ. At the beginning of the 17th century, Tsar Vasily Shuisky managed to issue the first Russian gold coins - hryvnias and nickels, but they did not last long in circulation, turning into treasures.

And yet the most important factor in the unstable monetary circulation was an acute shortage of precious metals, and above all silver. Since the time of Kievan Rus, foreign coins have been used for money circulation for many centuries. In particular, under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, from 1654 on German and Czech thalers - round silver coins - the sovereign's stamp was minted in the form of a horseman with a spear or a double-headed eagle of the Romanov dynasty. Such coins were called efimok with a sign, they went in parallel with Russian coins *. In addition to their independent circulation, small coins were minted from efimka. From the very beginning, a firm rate was set: 1 efimok = 64 kopecks, ᴛ.ᴇ. that is how many kopecks could be minted from one thaler. The real content of silver in one thaler was only 40-42 kopecks.

By the middle of the 17th century, for a number of reasons, the state treasury was practically empty. The consequences of the Polish-Swedish intervention and the Time of Troubles also affected. For several years in a row there was a big crop failure, to which we can add the plague epidemics of 1654-1655. Up to 67% of all government spending in the middle of the 17th century went to the maintenance of the army and to constant wars: with Sweden (1656-1661) and Poland (1654-1667).

To cover the costs, the government first introduced inferior silver, and then, in 1654, copper money with a forced official rate at which a copper penny was equal to a silver penny of the same weight. Such copper money was issued for 4 million rubles. This immediately led to the depreciation of money and an increase in prices, since copper is much cheaper than silver. For one silver kopeck, at first they gave 4, and later - 15 copper kopecks. There were double prices for goods in the country. With servicemen and townspeople, the state paid with copper, and taxes required to be paid in silver. Peasants refused to sell food for copper money. All this led to a decrease in the standard of living of the population, especially its lower strata, and to the Copper Riot in Moscow in 1662, which was brutally suppressed, and copper coins were withdrawn from circulation.

In the 17th century, the desire of the state to streamline the entire monetary and financial system intensified. This was primarily due to the fact that

* The Russian name ʼʼefimokʼʼ comes from the name of the Czech that government spending on the maintenance of the administrative apparatus of the growing army (strelets army, reiters, dragoons), the huge royal court was constantly growing.

In 1680, the first state budget was adopted in Russia, which specified in detail the sources of income and expenditure items. The bulk of the income was made up of direct taxes from the population. During this period, a census of peasants was carried out and a house-to-house taxation (from the yard or tax) was established instead of the former sow tax ʼʼs sokhʼʼ, a conventional financial unit *. This step made it possible to increase the number of taxpayers at the expense of slaves and other categories of the population, from whom taxes were not previously taken. It should be noted that the feudal lords, the clergy, as a rule, did not pay any taxes. Moreover, they also established their exactions from the serfs.

A large item of budget revenue was indirect taxes on salt** and other goods, as well as customs duties. A separate source of income was state-owned monopolies of the state - the exclusive right to trade vodka within the country, and outside it - bread potash, hemp, resin, caviar, sable fur, etc.
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The number of state-owned goods included raw silk, brought from Persia. Monopolies were often farmed out, which also replenished the budget. For example, the richest Astrakhan fisheries in the country were in the hands of the treasury, which either rented them out or rented them out, or itself managed there through faithful heads or kissers. But all these sources of income did not cover the expenditure side, and the state budget remained in deficit from year to year, which inevitably raised the question of the extreme importance of fundamental reforms in the country.

The 17th century was marked major event in economic life countries - formation of the all-Russian market. For this, certain prerequisites have appeared in Russia. As mentioned earlier, the country has become more and more noticeably territorial division of labor. A number of regions specialized in the production of various industrial products. In agriculture, a certain regional specialization also developed, agricultural enterprises began to produce products for sale. In the north-west of Russia, they preferred to grow flax for the market, in the south and south-east - bread and beef cattle, near large cities - vegetables, dairy cattle. Even monasteries were engaged in the production of various products for sale: leather, lard, hemp, potash, etc.

All this contributed to the strengthening economic ties between regions, the gradual merging of local markets into one, all-Russian. In addition, the centralized state encouraged the process of such unification. The Left-bank Ukraine, the Volga region, Siberia, and the North Caucasus were gradually drawn into economic ties.

If in the 16th century internal trade was carried out mainly in small markets, then in the 17th century regular trade fairs and above all near the monasteries during great church holidays. There were all-Russian fairs: Makarievskaya ( Nizhny Novgorod), Svenskaya (Bryansk), Arkhangelsk, Tikhvin, Irbitskaya, Solvychegodskaya. A special place among shopping centers occupied Novgorod the Great, which was famous for trade in the XI-XII centuries. So, the legendary gusler Sadko, who became a merchant, had a real prototype of Sotko Sytin, whose name is mentioned in the Novgorod chronicle of the 12th century, since he built the temple with his own money.

In Veliky Novgorod, guest trade was carried out by artels-companies. One of these companies has been known since the 13th century and was called "Ivanovo-sto" (after the church of St. John the Baptist). She had a common gostiny dvor(goods warehouse), "gridnitsa" (large chamber for meetings). The company was led by an elected headman, who oversaw the order, the correctness of paperwork. The company had large special scales to check the authenticity of the weight of goods, and small scales weighed money bars. I had my own commercial court headed by a thousand, who resolved various conflicts.

It was difficult to join the Ivanovo artel, for this it was necessary to pay a fee of 50 hryvnias, donate 30 hryvnias of silver to the temple. With this money it was possible to buy a herd of cows of 80 heads. Later, membership became hereditary and passed on to children if they continued to trade. Since the 15th century, the Novgorod merchants Stroganovs have become famous. They were among the first to start the salt-making business in the Urals, they traded with the peoples of the North and Siberia. Ivan the Terrible gave the merchant Anika Stroganov a huge territory to manage: the land of Perm along the Kama to the Urals. With the money of this family, Yermak's detachment for the development of Siberia was later equipped.

But in the XV-XVI centuries, the center of trade gradually moved to Moscow. It was in Moscow in the 17th century that the merchants as a special class of citizens, playing an increasingly prominent role in the economic and political life of the country. Particularly eminent merchants, “guests”, about 30 people stood out here. This honorary title was received from the tsar by those who had a trade turnover of at least 20 thousand rubles a year (or about 200 thousand gold rubles on the scale of prices at the beginning of the 20th century). These merchants were especially close to the kings, carried out important financial assignments in the interests of the treasury, conducted foreign trade in the name of the king, acted as contractors at important construction sites, collected taxes, etc. They were exempt from paying duties, could buy large land plots into their possession .

Merchants with smaller capitals were included in the "hundreds" - living rooms, cloth, etc. Their representatives also had great privileges, had elected self-government within the "hundreds", which were led by "heads" and "foremen". The lowest ranks were "black hundreds" and "sloboda". This, as a rule, included those who produced products and sold them themselves.

Foreigners who visited Russia in the 15th-16th centuries were amazed at the scale of trade. They noted the abundance of meat, fish, bread and other products in the markets of Moscow, their cheapness compared to European prices. They wrote that beef is sold not by weight, but “by eye”, that representatives of all classes are engaged in trade , that the government strongly supports trade. It is important to note that the Western European “price revolution”, which took place in the 16th century, also affected Russia. It is known that during the era of the great geographical discoveries, great amount cheap gold and silver from America, which led to a sharp depreciation of money and an equally sharp general growth prices. In Russia connected with Western Europe economic relations, prices also increased by the beginning of the 17th century by about three to four times.

In the 16th-17th centuries, the process of initial accumulation of capital began in Russia precisely in the sphere of trade. Later, merchant capital began to penetrate into the sphere of production, rich merchants bought craft workshops and industrial enterprises. Along with patrimonial and state-owned appeared merchant manufactories, which used the labor of free citizens, quitrent peasants released for seasonal work, foreign craftsmen were also involved. About 10,000 free people were employed in the various industries of the Stroganovs (salt, potash).

One of the sources of accumulation of merchant capital was the system ransoms, when the government granted wealthy merchants the right to sell salt, wine and other goods important for the treasury, to collect tavern and customs duties. So, the Moscow guests Voronin, Nikitnikov, Gruditsyn and others traded in grain, had large ironworks, were shipowners, were tax-farmers for the supply of food and uniforms to the army.

In the XVI-XVII centuries, Russia began to develop more actively foreign trade. Even under Vasily III, trade agreements were concluded with Denmark; under Ivan IV, strong ties were established with England. English merchants were given great privileges in trade, which was carried out with virtually no duties for both sides. The British founded several trading houses-factories in Vologda, Kholmogory, Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan, Astrakhan. Followed by England Russian market Holland and France rushed in. Foreign trade on a large scale was carried out with Lithuania, Persia, Bukhara, Crimea. Russian exports were not only traditional raw materials (timber, furs, honey, wax), but also handicraft products (fur coats, linen, horse saddles, dishes, arrows, knives, metal armor, ropes, potash and much more). Back in the 15th century, the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin visited India 30 years before the Portuguese Vasco da Gama, lived there for several years, learned foreign languages, and strengthened trade ties with eastern countries.

Foreign trade in the 17th century was carried out mainly through two cities: through Astrakhan went foreign trade turnover with Asian countries, and through Arkhangelsk - with European ones. Arkhangelsk, founded in 1584 as sea port, although Russia did not have its own merchant fleet and the entire cargo flow was on foreign ships. In the middle of the 17th century, goods worth 17 million rubles were exported abroad through this port annually. gold (at the prices of the beginning of the 20th century).

Russian merchants were not yet able to compete in the domestic market with strong foreign companies, and therefore they sought to strengthen their monopoly position with the help of the state. Merchants in letters of petition asked the government to establish protectionist measures to protect domestic interests, and the government largely went to meet them. In 1646 duty-free trade with England was abolished. In 1653 introduced Trade charter which imposed higher trade duties on foreign goods. By Novotrade charter 1667, foreign merchants were allowed to carry out wholesale operations in Russia only and only in certain border towns. The charter established great benefits for Russian merchants: the customs duty for them was four times lower than for foreign merchants. The charter strongly encouraged the reduction import operations and increase in exports in order to attract additional funds to the treasury Money and formation of active trade balance Russia, which was achieved at the end of the 17th century. In this great merit belongs A.L. Ordyn-Nashchekin, Russian statesman under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The government, under the influence of Ordyn-Nashchekin, tried to mercantilist policy, i.e. policy of all-round enrichment of the state at the expense of foreign trade.

However, the possibilities of Russian international economic relations were noticeably constrained by the lack of convenient ice-free ports on the Baltic and Black Seas, so the search for Russia's access to the seas became a vital need at the end of the 17th century.

An important element in the formation of the all-Russian market was the creation in the country unified monetary system. Until the end of the 15th century, practically all the principalities of Russia - Tver, Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod, etc., were engaged in minting coins independently. Prince Ivan III began to prohibit the minting of money to all princes who were part of a single state. He approved the Moscow money issue. On Moscow coins appeared the inscription: "The Sovereign of All Russia." But the parallel money issue in Veliky Novgorod continued until the time of Ivan IV. His mother Elena Glinskaya, the widow of Vasily III, in 1534 took certain steps towards the creation of a unified monetary system. She introduced strict rules for minting coins according to standard samples (weight, design), and violation of these standards was severely punished. Under Elena Glinskaya, small silver coins were issued, on which a horseman with a sword in his hands was depicted - sword money. On dengs of a larger weight, a rider-warrior was depicted, striking a snake with a spear - penny money. They were later named penny. These coins were irregularly shaped, the size of a watermelon seed. Smaller coins were also issued - half shells, or 1/4 kopeck, with the image of a bird, etc. Until the end of the 16th century, the year of issue was not indicated on the coins. Under Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, they began to beat out the date "from the creation of the world." At the beginning of the 17th century, Tsar Vasily Shuisky managed to issue the first Russian gold coins - hryvnias and nickels, but they did not last long in circulation, turning into treasures.

And yet the most important factor in the unstable monetary circulation was the acute shortage of precious metals, and above all silver. Since the time of Kievan Rus, foreign coins have been used for money circulation for many centuries. In particular, under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, from 1654 on German and Czech thalers - round silver coins - the sovereign's stamp was minted in the form of a horseman with a spear or a double-headed eagle of the Romanov dynasty. These coins are called efimok with a sign, they went in parallel with Russian coins . In addition to their independent circulation, small coins were minted from efimka. From the very beginning, a fixed rate was set: 1 efimok = 64 kopecks, i.e. that is how many kopecks could be minted from one thaler. The real content of silver in one thaler was only 40-42 kopecks.

By the middle of the 17th century, for a number of reasons, the state treasury was practically empty. The consequences of the Polish-Swedish intervention and the "Time of Troubles" also affected. For several years in a row there was a big crop failure, to which we can add the plague of 1654-1655. Up to 67% of all government spending in the middle of the 17th century went to the maintenance of the army and to constant wars: with Sweden (1656-1661) and Poland (1654-1667).

To cover the costs, the government introduced first inferior silver and then, in 1654, copper money, with an official forced exchange rate at which a copper penny was equal to a silver penny of the same weight. Such copper money was issued for 4 million rubles. This immediately led to the depreciation of money and an increase in prices, since copper is much cheaper than silver. For one silver kopeck, at first they gave 4, and later - 15 copper kopecks. There were double prices for goods in the country. With servicemen and townspeople, the state paid with copper, and taxes required to be paid in silver. Peasants refused to sell food for copper money. All this led to a decrease in the standard of living of the population, especially its lower strata, and to copper riot in Moscow in 1662, which was brutally suppressed, and copper coins were withdrawn from circulation.

In the 17th century, the desire of the state to streamline the entire monetary and financial system intensified. This was primarily due to the fact that government spending on the maintenance of the administrative apparatus, the growing army (streltsy troops, reiters, dragoons), and the huge royal court were constantly growing.

In 1680, the first state budget was adopted in Russia, which specified in detail the sources of income and expenditure items. The main part of income was made by direct taxes from the population. During this period, a census of peasants was carried out and it was established household taxation (from the yard or tax) instead of the former field tax "from the plow", a conventional financial unit . This step made it possible to increase the number of taxpayers at the expense of slaves and other categories of the population, from whom taxes were not previously taken. It should be noted that the feudal lords, the clergy, as a rule, did not pay any taxes. Moreover, they also established their exactions from the serfs.

But all these sources of income did not cover the expenditure side, and the state budget remained in deficit from year to year, which inevitably raised the question of the need for fundamental reforms in the country.

The 17th century was marked by the most important event in the economic life of the country - formation of the all-Russian market. For this, certain prerequisites have appeared in Russia. As mentioned earlier, the country has become more and more noticeably territorial division of labor. A number of regions specialized in the production of various industrial products. In agriculture, a certain regional specialization also developed, agricultural enterprises began to produce products for sale. In the north-west of Russia, they preferred to grow flax for the market, in the south and south-east - bread and beef cattle, near large cities - vegetables, dairy cattle. Even monasteries were engaged in the production of various products for sale: leather, lard, hemp, potash, etc.

All this contributed to the strengthening of economic ties between the regions, the gradual merging of local markets into one, all-Russian. In addition, the centralized state encouraged the process of such unification. The Left-bank Ukraine, the Volga region, Siberia, and the North Caucasus were gradually drawn into economic ties.

If in the 16th century, internal trade was carried out mainly in small markets, then in the 17th century regular fairs began to appear (from it. Jahrmarkt- annual market). As a rule, they were held at certain times of the year for several days and even weeks, near large monasteries during major church holidays or in the fall, after the completion of field work. Merchants from different cities and countries came here, wholesale, large trade and credit transactions were concluded.

There were all-Russian fairs: Makarievskaya(Nizhny Novgorod), Svenskaya(on the river Sven near Bryansk), Arkhangelsk, Tikhvin, Irbit, Solvychegodskaya. Novgorod the Great occupied a special place among the shopping centers, which was famous for trade back in the 11th-12th centuries. So, the legendary gusler Sadko, who became a merchant, had a real prototype of Sotko Sytin, whose name is mentioned in the Novgorod chronicle of the 12th century, since he built the temple with his own money.

In Veliky Novgorod trade-guest was carried out by artels-companies. One of these companies has been known since the 13th century and was called " Ivanovo-sto"(according to the church of St. John the Baptist). She had a common guest yard (goods warehouse), “ Gridnitsa» (large chamber for meetings). The merchants who founded this company waxers, not only engaged in the wax trade, but also actively participated in the political life of the Novgorod Republic. The company was led by an elected headman, who oversaw the order, the correctness of paperwork. The company had large special scales to check the validity of the weight of goods, and on

small scales were weighed ingots. It had its own merchant court, headed by a thousand court, which resolved various conflicts. It was difficult to join the Ivanovo artel, for this it was necessary to pay a fee of 50 hryvnias, donate 30 hryvnias of silver to the temple. With this money it was possible to buy a herd of cows of 80 heads. Later, membership became hereditary and passed on to children if they continued to trade.

Since the 15th century, the Novgorod merchants Stroganovs have become famous. They were among the first to start the salt-making business in the Urals, they traded with the peoples of the North and Siberia. Ivan the Terrible gave the merchant Anika Stroganov a huge territory to manage: the land of Perm along the Kama to the Urals. With the money of this family, Yermak's detachment for the development of Siberia was later equipped.

But in the XV-XVI centuries, the center of trade gradually moved to Moscow. It was in Moscow in the 17th century that the merchants as a special class of citizens, playing an increasingly prominent role in the economic and political life of the country. Here stand out eminent merchants ("guests"), about 30 people. This honorary title was received from the tsar by those who had a trade turnover of at least 20 thousand rubles a year (or about 200 thousand gold rubles on the scale of prices at the beginning of the 20th century). These merchants were especially close to the kings, carried out important financial assignments in the interests of the treasury, conducted foreign trade in the name of the king, acted as contractors at important construction sites, collected taxes, etc. They were exempt from paying duties, could buy large land plots into their possession . G.L. Nikitnikova, N.A. Sveteshnikov, representatives of the families of the Stroganovs, Guryevs, Shustovs and others.

Merchants with smaller capitals were included in two trading corporations - living room and cloth"hundred". Their representatives also had great privileges, had elected self-government within the "hundreds", which were led by "heads" and "foremen". The lowest ranks were "black hundreds" and "liberties". This, as a rule, included those who produced products and sold them themselves.

Foreigners who visited Russia in the 15th-16th centuries were amazed at the scale of trade. They noted the abundance of meat, fish, bread and other products in the markets of Moscow, their cheapness compared to European prices. They wrote that beef was sold not by weight, but “by eye”, that representatives of all classes were engaged in trade, that the government supported trade in every possible way. It is important to note that the Western European “price revolution”, which took place in the 16th century, also affected Russia. It is known that in the era of the great geographical discoveries, a huge amount of cheap gold and silver from America poured into Europe, which led to a sharp depreciation of money and the same sharp general increase in prices. In Russia, connected with Western Europe by economic relations, prices also rose by the beginning of the 17th century by about three to four times.

In the 16th-17th centuries, the process of initial accumulation of capital began in Russia precisely in the sphere of trade. Later, merchant capital began to penetrate into the sphere of production, rich merchants bought craft workshops and industrial enterprises. Along with patrimonial and state-owned appeared merchant factories, where the labor of free townspeople, quitrent peasants released for seasonal work was used, foreign craftsmen were also involved. About 10,000 free people were employed in the various industries of the Stroganovs (salt, potash).

One of the sources of accumulation of merchant capital was the system farming out, when the government granted wealthy merchants the right to sell salt, wine and other goods important for the treasury, to collect tavern and customs duties. So, the Moscow guests Voronin, Nikitnikov, Gruditsyn and others traded in grain, had large ironworks, were shipowners, were tax-farmers for the supply of food and uniforms to the army.

In the XVI-XVII centuries, Russia began to develop more actively foreign trade. Even under Vasily III, trade agreements were concluded with Denmark; under Ivan IV, strong ties were established with England. English merchants were given great privileges in trade, which was carried out with virtually no duties for both sides. The British founded several trading houses-factories in Vologda, Kholmogory, Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan, Astrakhan.

Bilateral Anglo-Russian relations date back to the middle of the 16th century, when English merchants started looking for ways to India and China through the North Arctic Ocean. In 1553, three English ships were lost in the ice of the White Sea near the mouth of the Northern Dvina. Some of the sailors died, and the rest of the expedition landed on the shore near the village of Kholmogory. The British, led by the commander of one of the ships, Richard Chancellor, were transported to Moscow to the court of Ivan the Terrible, where they were received with great honors.

In 1554, London was founded Moscow company, which carried out not only trade, but also diplomatic relations between the two countries. England exported from Russia canvas, ropes, hemp, ship timber and other goods necessary for the arrangement of her fleet. And for centuries England occupied leading place in Russia's foreign trade. And in Moscow, on Varvarka Street, the building is still preserved Old English Court (English Embassy), built in the 16th century.

Following England, Holland and France rushed to the Russian market. Foreign trade on a large scale was carried out with Lithuania, Persia, Bukhara, Crimea. Russian exports were not only traditional raw materials (timber, furs, honey, wax), but also handicraft products (fur coats, linen, horse saddles, dishes, arrows, knives, metal armor, ropes, potash and much more). Back in the 15th century, a Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin visited India 30 years before the Portuguese Vasco da Gama, lived there for several years, learned foreign languages, strengthened trade ties with eastern countries.

Foreign trade in the 17th century was carried out mainly through two cities: through Astrakhan there was a foreign trade turnover with Asian countries, and through Arkhangelsk- with European ones. Arkhangelsk, founded in 1584 as a seaport, was of particular importance, although Russia did not have its own merchant fleet and all cargo traffic was on foreign ships. In the middle of the 17th century, goods worth 17 million rubles were exported abroad through this port annually. gold (at the prices of the beginning of the 20th century).

Russian merchants were not yet able to compete in the domestic market with strong foreign companies, and therefore they sought to strengthen their monopoly position with the help of the state. Merchants in letters of petition asked the government to establish protectionist measures to protect domestic interests, and the government largely went to meet them. In 1649 duty-free trade with England was abolished. In 1653 introduced trade charter, which set higher trade duties on foreign goods. By Novotrade charter 1667, foreign merchants were allowed to carry out wholesale operations in Russia only and only in certain border towns. The charter established great benefits for Russian merchants: the customs duty for them was four times lower than for foreign merchants. The Charter in every possible way encouraged the reduction of import operations and the increase in exports in order to attract additional funds to the treasury and form an active trade balance in Russia, which was achieved at the end of the 17th century. A great merit in this belonged to A.L. Ordin-Nashchekin, Russian statesman under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The government, under the influence of Ordin-Nashchekin, tried to mercantilist politics, those. policy of all-round enrichment of the state at the expense of foreign trade.

An important element in the formation of the all-Russian market was the creation in the country unified monetary system. Until the end of the 15th century, practically all the principalities of Russia - Tver, Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod, etc., were engaged in minting coins independently. Prince Ivan III began to prohibit the minting of money to all princes who were part of a single state. He approved the Moscow money issue. On Moscow coins appeared the inscription: "Sovereign of All Russia". But the parallel money issue in Veliky Novgorod continued until the time of Ivan IV. His mother Elena Glinskaya, the widow of Vasily III, in 1534 took certain steps towards the creation of a unified monetary system. She introduced strict rules for minting coins according to standard samples (weight, design), and violation of these standards was severely punished. Under Elena Glinskaya, small silver coins were issued, on which a horseman with a sword in his hands was depicted - sword money. On dengs of a larger weight, a rider-warrior was depicted, striking a snake with a spear - penny money, which were later named penny. These coins were irregularly shaped, the size of a watermelon seed. Smaller coins were also issued - half pillows, or 1/4 kopeck, with the image of a bird, etc. Until the end of the 16th century, the year of issue was not indicated on the coins. Under Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, they began to beat out the date "from the creation of the world." At the beginning of the 17th century, Tsar Vasily Shuisky managed to issue the first Russian gold coins - hryvnias and nickels, but they did not last long in circulation, turning into treasures.

And yet the most important factor in the unstable monetary circulation was the acute shortage of precious metals, and above all silver. Since the time of Kievan Rus, foreign coins have been used for money circulation for many centuries. In particular, under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, from 1654 on German and Czech thalers - round silver coins - the sovereign's stamp was minted in the form of a horseman with a spear or a double-headed eagle of the Romanov dynasty. T what coins were called efimok with a sign, they went in parallel with Russian coins. In addition to their independent circulation, small coins were minted from efimka. From the very beginning, a fixed rate was set: 1 efimok = 64 kopecks, i.e. that is how many kopecks could be minted from one thaler. The real content of silver in one thaler was only 40-42 kopecks.

To cover the costs, the government first introduced inferior silver, and then, in 1654, copper money with a forced official rate at which a copper penny was equal to a silver penny of the same weight. Such copper money was issued for 4 million rubles. This immediately led to the depreciation of money and an increase in prices, since copper is much cheaper than silver. For one silver kopeck, at first they gave 4, and later - 15 copper kopecks. There were double prices for goods in the country. With servicemen and townspeople, the state paid with copper, and taxes required to be paid in silver. Peasants refused to sell food for copper money. All this led to a decrease in the standard of living of the population, especially its lower strata, and to copper riot in Moscow in 1662, which was brutally suppressed, and copper coins were withdrawn from circulation.

In 1680, Russia adopted first state budget, where sources of income and items of expenditure were specified in detail. The main part of income was made by direct taxes from the population. During this period, a census of peasants was carried out and it was established household taxation (from the yard or tax) instead of the former field tax "from the plow", a conventional financial unit. This step made it possible to increase the number of taxpayers at the expense of slaves and other categories of the population, from whom taxes were not previously taken. It should be noted that the feudal lords, the clergy, as a rule, did not pay any taxes. Moreover, they also established their exactions from the serfs.

Indirect taxes on salt and other goods, as well as customs duties, were a major source of budget revenue. A separate item of income was state monopolies states - the exclusive right to trade vodka within the country, and outside it - bread, potash, hemp, resin, caviar, sable fur, etc. The number of state-owned goods included raw silk brought from Persia. Monopolies were often farmed out, which also replenished the budget. For example, the richest Astrakhan fishing in the country was in the hands of the treasury, which either rented them out or dues, or itself managed there through faithful heads or kissers.

In 1646, a salt tax was established: two hryvnias per pood of salt. This led to a doubling of its market price. In response to this tax, a salt riot broke out in Moscow, suppressed by the government.

17th century was marked by the most important event in the eco-
nomic life of the country - the formation of an all-Russian
sia market. In the country, everything deepened noticeably
territorial division of labor. A number of districts
new specialized in the production of various
industrial products.
In agriculture, a certain
divided regional specialization, agriculture
farms began to produce products on
sale. This contributed to the strengthening of the economic
ties between regions, the gradual merger
local markets into a single all-Russian market.
In the XV-XVI centuries. the center of trade gradually moved-
Xia to Moscow. It was in Moscow in the XVI century. formed-
elk merchants as a special class of townspeople,
playing an increasingly prominent role in the economic
and political life of the country. Here stood out especially
more eminent merchants, guests, there were about
30 people. This honorary title was received from the king by those
who had a trade turnover of at least 20 thousand rubles. in year
(or about 200 thousand gold rubles on the scale of the beginning
XX century). In the XVI-XVII centuries. in Russia, the process of trans-
initial accumulation of capital precisely in the
re trade. Later, merchant capital began to penetrate
into the sphere of production, rich merchants bought re-
craft workshops and industrial enterprises
tiya. Along with patrimonial and state-owned appeared
merchant manufactories, which used
the labor of free citizens, quitrent peasants,
puppies for laissez-faire crafts, and also attracted
and foreign craftsmen.
In the XVI-XVII centuries. Russia began to develop foreign trade more actively. Even under Basil, trade agreements were concluded with Denmark, under
Ivana /^ established strong ties with England. An-
Glian merchants were given great privileges in trade
govle, which was carried out practically without assistance
straps for both sides.
An important element of the education of the All-Russian
market was the creation in the country of a single monetary
noah system. In the 17th century the aspiration of the state
donations, streamline the monetary and financial
system. In 1680, the first
state budget, which details
There were sources of income and items of expenditure. main
part of the revenues were direct taxes from the population
niya. During this period, a census was conducted
yang and established house-to-house taxation with
yard, or taxes instead of the former field tax
from the plow, a conditional financial unit. This step
allowed to increase the number of taxpayers
at the expense of serfs and other categories of the population, with whom
previously no taxes were taken. Feudal lords, clergy,
as a rule, they did not pay any taxes. Furthermore,
they set their dues from the serfs
jan. A major item in the revenue side of the budget was
indirect taxes on salt and other goods, and
customs duties. A separate item of income
there were state monopolies of the state - except
the sole right to trade vodka within the country, and for
outside it - bread / potash, hemp, resin,
caviar, etc. Monopolies were often farmed out,
which also added to the budget. But all these sources
revenues did not cover the expenditure side, and the state
The military budget remained in deficit from year to year.

In the 17th century, the most profitable and prestigious industry was foreign trade. Thanks to her, the most scarce goods were supplied from the Middle East: jewelry, incense, spices, silk, and so on. The desire to have all this at home stimulated the formation and further strengthening own production. This was the first impetus for the development of internal trade in Europe.

Introduction

Throughout the Middle Ages, there was a gradual increase in the volume of foreign trade. Towards the end of the 15th century, there was a noticeable leap as a result of the series. European trade became global, and smoothly passed into the period of primitive accumulation of capital. During the 16th-18th centuries, there was a strengthening of economic interaction between a number of regions and the formation of national trading platforms. At the same time, the formation of nation-states of absolute centralized monarchies is noted. The entire economic policy of these countries was aimed at education national market, the formation of foreign and domestic trade. Great importance was also given to the strengthening of industry, Agriculture, means of communication.

The beginning of the formation of the all-Russian market

By the 18th century, new regions gradually began to join the sphere of general trade relations of Russia. So, for example, products and some manufactured goods(saltpeter, gunpowder, glass). At the same time, Russia was a platform for the sale of products of local artisans and manufactories. Fish, meat, bread began to arrive from the Don regions. Back from the central and Volga districts were dishes, shoes, fabrics. Cattle came from Kazakhstan, in exchange for which the neighboring territories supplied bread and certain industrial goods.

Trade fairs

Fairs had a great influence on the formation of the all-Russian market. Makaryevskaya became the largest and had national significance. Goods were brought here from various regions of the country: Vologda, the west and north-west of Smolensk, St. Petersburg, Riga, Yaroslavl and Moscow, Astrakhan and Kazan. Among the most popular are precious metals, iron, furs, bread, leather, various fabrics and livestock products (meat, lard), salt, and fish.

What was purchased at the fair then dispersed throughout the country: fish and furs - to Moscow, bread and soap - to St. Petersburg, metal products - to Astrakhan. During the century, the trade turnover of the fair increased significantly. So, in 1720, it was 280 thousand rubles, and after 21 years - already 489 thousand.

Along with Makaryevskaya, other fairs have also acquired national significance: Troitskaya, Orenburg, Blagoveshchenskaya and Arkhangelskaya. Irbitskaya, for example, had connections with sixty Russian cities in 17 provinces, and interaction was established with Persia and Central Asia. was connected with 37 cities and the 21st province. Together with Moscow, all these fairs were of great importance in uniting both regional and district, as well as local trading platforms into the All-Russian market.

Economic situation in a developing country

The Russian peasant, after his complete legal enslavement, in the first place, was nevertheless obliged to pay the state, like the master, dues (in kind or in cash). But if, for example, we compare economic situation Russia and Poland, then for the Polish peasants the duty in the form of corvee became more and more intensified. So, for them, it was ultimately 5-6 days a week. For a Russian peasant, it was equal to 3 days.

The payment of duties in cash implied the existence of a market. The peasant was supposed to have access to this trading floor. The formation of the all-Russian market stimulated the landlords to manage their own economy and sell their products, as well as (and to no lesser extent) the state to receive fiscal cash receipts.

The development of the economy in Russia since the 2nd half of the 16th century

During this period, large regional trading floors began to form. By the 17th century, the strengthening of entrepreneurial ties was carried out on a national scale. As a result of the expansion of interactions between individual areas, a new concept appears - the "all-Russian market". Although its strengthening was largely hampered by Russian chronic off-road conditions.

By the middle of the 17th century, there were some prerequisites due to which an all-Russian market arose. Its formation, in particular, was facilitated by the deepening social division labor, industrial territorial specialization, as well as the necessary political situation that appeared due to the transformations that were aimed at creating a single state.

The main trading platforms of the country

From the 2nd half of the 16th century, such main regional markets were formed and strengthened, such as the Volga region (Vologda, Kazan, Yaroslavl - livestock products), the North (Vologda - the main grain market, Irbit, Solvychegodsk - furs), North-West ( Novgorod - sale of hemp and linen products), Center (Tikhvin, Tula - purchase and sale of metal products). The main universal trading platform that time was Moscow. There were about one hundred and twenty specialized rows in it, where you could buy wool and cloth, silk and fur, lard and metal products, both domestic and foreign.

Influence of state power

The All-Russian market, which emerged as a result of the reforms, contributed to the increase in entrepreneurial initiative. As for the social consciousness itself, ideas of the rights and freedoms of the individual arose at its level. Gradually, the economic situation in the era of the primitive accumulation of capital led to the freedom of enterprise both in trade and in other industries.

In the agricultural field, the measures taken by the feudal lords are gradually replacing state decrees to change the rules of land use and farming. The government promotes the formation of a national industry, which, in turn, influenced the development of the all-Russian market. In addition, the state patronized the introduction of agriculture, more advanced than it was before.

In the field of foreign trade, the government seeks to acquire colonies and conduct. Thus, everything that was previously characteristic of individual trading cities is now becoming the political and economic direction of the entire state as a whole.

Conclusion

Basic hallmark era of primitive capital accumulation is considered the emergence of commodity-money relations and market economy. All this left a special imprint on all spheres. social life of that period. At the same time, it was a somewhat contradictory era, in fact, like other transitional periods, when there was a struggle between feudal control of the economy, society, politics, spiritual human needs and new trends in bourgeois freedoms, due to the expansion of trade scales, which contributed to the elimination of territorial isolation and limited feudal estates.

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