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Foreign trade, etc. See what "Foreign Trade" is in other dictionaries. Types of black markets

For the collection of statistical data on foreign trade operations, the assessment of VO is very important, since it is then used to calculate:

balance trade balance;
average prices;
efficiency foreign trade operations in general and other significant parameters.

Foreign trade turnover is closely related to the concept of foreign trade.

What is foreign trade

Trade relations of one state with other countries, including import operations (import) and export operations (export) of goods, are called foreign trade. This term applies exclusively to individual countries.

International trade helps:

receive additional income from the sale of the national product abroad;
satiate domestic market states;
increase labor productivity;
cope with limited resources within the country.

In total foreign trade transactions different states form world (international) trade. International trade is the oldest form of economic relations between states, which has a huge impact on the development of the world economy as a whole.

How is foreign trade turnover calculated?

So, the main concepts of foreign trade are export and import.

Exports - the total volume of goods produced in the country, which is exported from it for a certain time period.
Import - a set of goods produced outside a certain state and imported into it for a certain period.

Export and import transactions are recorded at the moment when the goods cross the border. They are displayed in foreign economic and customs statistics. The export operation of the state-seller corresponds to the import operation of the state-buyer.

As a rule, exports are recorded at FOB (free of board) prices. In international trade relations, this means that the price of the goods includes the costs of its transportation on board an international ship or other transport and insurance until the completion of loading.

Imports are accounted for at CIF prices (cost, insurance, freight). This means that the price of the goods includes the costs of its transportation and insurance, customs fees to the port of shipment of the buyer. That is, all these costs are borne by the seller. The formula for the total volume of foreign trade turnover is as follows:

VO = Import of goods + Export of goods

The country's VO is calculated in monetary units, since different goods cannot be compared in physical terms, for example, in tons, liters or meters.

How is the balance of foreign trade turnover calculated?

The balance of foreign trade turnover is also a significant concept for assessing the economy of a particular country. It can be calculated using the following formula:

VO balance \u003d Export of goods - import of goods

The balance of foreign trade turnover can be either positive or negative. A positive VO balance (the state sells more than it buys) indicates the growth of the economy. On the contrary, a negative balance indicates that the market is oversaturated with imported goods, and the interests domestic manufacturer may be impaired.

World trade turnover

World trade is the sum of the exports of all countries, which is expressed in US dollars.

The participation of a state in world trade is displayed by such indicators as export and import quotas.

Export quota - the ratio of export operations to gross domestic product(GDP). This indicator allows you to understand what part of the goods and services produced within the state is sold on the international market.
Import quota - ratio import operations to the volume of domestic consumption of the state's products. Shows the share of goods imported into the country in domestic consumption.

Statistical data on world foreign trade turnover are collected, summarized and systematized. For this, international nomenclatures were developed (they are taken into account in the course of building national foreign trade classifications).

Definition

Benefits of participating in international trade

Modern theories international trade

Mercantilism

Adam Smith's Absolute Advantage Theory

David Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage

Heckscher-Ohlin theory

Leontief's paradox

Product life cycle

Michael Porter's theory

Rybchinsky's theorem

Theory of Samuelson and Stolper

territory;

Acquired Benefits:

production technology, that is, the ability to produce a variety of products.

David Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage

Specialization in the production of a product that has the maximum comparative advantage is also beneficial in the absence of absolute advantages. A country should specialize in exporting the goods in which it has the greatest absolute advantage (if it has an absolute advantage in both goods) or the least absolute disadvantage (if it has no absolute advantage in any of the goods). Specializing in certain types of goods is beneficial to each of these countries and leads to an increase in total production, trade is motivated even if one country has an absolute advantage in the production of all goods over another country. An example in this case is the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which brings income to both countries, even if the absolute costs of production of both cloth and wine in Portugal are lower than in England.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory

According to this theory, a country exports a product for the production of which a relatively surplus factor of production is intensively used, and imports goods for the production of which it experiences a relative shortage of factors of production. The necessary conditions existence:

countries participating in international exchange have a tendency to export those goods and services for the manufacture of which predominantly the factors of production that are available in excess are used, and, conversely, a tendency to import those products for which there are any factors;

the development of international trade leads to the equalization of "factor" prices, that is, the income received by the owner of this factor;

it is possible, given sufficient international mobility of factors of production, to replace the export of goods by the movement of the factors themselves between countries.

Foreign trade is

Leontief's paradox

The essence of the paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, while labor-intensive goods could decrease. In fact, when analyzing trade balance USA, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decrease. The resolution of the Leontief paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite large, but price labor in cost product is significantly lower than in export supplies USA. The capital intensity of labor in USA significant, together with high labor efficiency, this leads to a significant impact on the price of labor in export supplies. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming Leontief's paradox. This is due to the growth in the share of services, labor costs and the structure of the American economy. This leads to an increase in the labor intensity of the entire American economy, not excluding exports.

Product life cycle

Some types of products go through a cycle consisting of five stages:

product development. Organization finds and implements new idea product. At this time, sales zero, costs are growing.

Export

Export (English export) in the economy is the export abroad of goods sold to a foreign buyer or intended for sale in a foreign market.

Export also includes the export of goods for processing in another country, the transportation of goods in transit through another country, the export of goods brought from another country for sale in a third country (re-export), etc. Indirect export - export with the participation of intermediaries.

Sources

wikipedia.org - Wikipedia - the free encyclopedia

glossary.ru - Glossary.ru

Encyclopedia of the investor. 2013 .

See what "Foreign Trade" is in other dictionaries:

International trade- trade between countries, consisting of export (export) and import (import) of goods and services. Foreign trade is carried out mainly through commercial transactions drawn up by foreign trade contracts. In English: Foreign trade See also: ... ... Financial vocabulary

For any state, the economy of foreign trade is of great importance. Not a single country has yet managed to form its own healthy economic system without participating in world trade. Let us consider further what constitutes foreign (international) trade.

General information

The development of foreign trade began long before the formation of the world economic system. The exchange of goods between countries formed the conditions for the formation of machine production, which in many cases could expand only on the basis of massive foreign demand and imported raw materials. Foreign trade is both a prerequisite and a consequence of the world division of labor. She is the most important factor creation and functioning of the international economy. Its historical path began from single transactions. Over time, trade relations developed, growing into large-scale long-term international cooperation.

Theoretical aspect

The problems of foreign trade were studied by politicians and scientists at a time when other areas of science were not sufficiently developed. From the 16th to the 18th century, the doctrine of mercantilism existed. At that time, the world division of labor was limited mainly to bilateral and tripartite agreements. According to the mercantilists, the state should sell as much as possible of any product on the foreign market, and purchase as few goods as possible. However, if all countries follow this idea, then foreign trade will be absurd.

Advantage Principle

Smith was the author of this theory. His idea was based on the "profitability" of domestic production and sales of products to other countries in which output is associated with at great expense. The principle of comparative advantage is based on differences in labor time spent on the production of one product.

Comparative cost theory

AT general view foreign trade acts as a means by which states can develop specialization, increase productivity own resources, thus increasing the total production volume. Due to this, sovereign countries, as well as their individual regions and enterprises, can benefit from products that they can produce with relatively high efficiency, as well as from their subsequent exchange for goods that they cannot produce themselves. The most important effect of rising costs is the formation of the boundaries of specialization. In this regard, it is not uncommon for goods produced by a country's own enterprises to directly compete with similar or similar imported products.

Free trade

Through trade based on the principle of comparative costs, the world economic system can achieve a more rational allocation of resources and a high degree of material well-being. The level of technological knowledge of states and the structure of their reserves are different. It follows from this that each country should produce those products, the cost of production of which in it is lower relative to others. If nations do this, the world can take full advantage of geographic specialization. The side benefit of free trade is to stimulate competition and limit monopoly. The high productivity of foreign enterprises is forcing many local companies to switch to lower cost technologies. In addition, it forces firms to innovate and follow technical progress, improving the quality of goods, using scientific achievements and development, invest in research.

The current state of the institute

Currently, the active participation of countries in international trade is due to a number of factors. First of all, cooperation at the global level makes it possible to use the resources available in states more efficiently. Foreign trade contributes to familiarization with the world achievements of technology and science. Participation in the world trade turnover makes it possible to reduce the time for the structural reorganization of the country's economic system, to meet the needs of the population in a more diverse and complete manner. These opportunities and prospects, in turn, contribute to increased interest in the mechanism through which the regulation of foreign trade is ensured. This problem is of particular importance for countries that have embarked on the path of forming a market system, aimed at participating in global cooperation.

Dynamics of foreign trade

World trade turnover acts as a central link in complex system intergovernmental relations. It is a complex of foreign trade states. Its volume is thus determined by summing the export figures of each country. Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, various structural shifts take place in world trade, cooperation and specialization industrial production. All this strengthens the interconnection of national economies. The volume of world trade is growing faster than production. This is proved by the statistics of foreign trade. Thus, for every 10% increase in world production, 16% of trade is accounted for. Foreign trade thus forms the prerequisites for the development of industry. At the same time, in case of disruptions in trade, production rates slow down.

Foreign Trade Restrictions

Experts put forward many arguments in favor of free trade. However, despite their persuasiveness, in practice many barriers are formed. The main restrictions include:

duties (including protectionist ones);
import quotas;
non-tariff barriers.

These obstacles act as means of implementing protectionism in the sphere of world trade. Let's consider them separately.

duties

These excise taxes on imported products are imposed for profit by the government or to protect domestic producers. Fiscal duties, as a rule, are used for products that are not produced at the enterprises of the country. For example, for the USA such goods are bananas, coffee and so on. These fees are usually low. Their main goal is to provide tax revenues to the federal budget.

Protectionist duties

They are introduced to protect the local producer from foreign competitors. The size of protectionist duties does not allow completely stopping the import of foreign products. However, such taxes put foreign manufacturers in a very disadvantageous position in the process of their trading activities in domestic markets.

Import quotas

With their help, the maximum volume of a particular product that can be imported into the domestic market for a certain period of time is established. Often, import quotas are more effective tool, through which foreign trade is deterred than duties. Despite the high tax, certain products can be imported in relatively in large numbers. But at the same time, a low import quota completely prohibits the supply of goods in excess of the established volume.

Non-tariff barriers

They should be understood as a licensing system, the creation of unjustified standards and norms for product quality, its safety, or simply bureaucratic restrictions in customs procedures. For example, Japan and a number of European countries require importers to obtain permits. By limiting the issuance of a license, imports can be effectively deterred.

Safeguard Analysis

An assessment of supply and demand shows that protectionism leads to higher prices and lower volumes of products subject to duties. In this regard, the sale of foreign goods is significantly reduced, and local producers make a profit due to rising prices and an increase in sales volume. Tariffs thus lead to a less efficient allocation of global and domestic resources. In a number of cases, the most convincing arguments in favor of a policy of protectionism are references to the need to expand the defense industries and the underdevelopment of the industrial sector. Most of the rest of the arguments are emotional appeals, half-truths or false statements, usually emphasizing the immediate effect of the introduction of restrictions, ignoring the long-term consequences.

The State of the Russian Institute at the Beginning of the Century

Russia's foreign trade at the beginning of the century was very active. Thus, in 2003 it remained an intensively emerging sector, stimulating the economic and social activity inside the country. Due to a combination of a number of favorable factors, Russia's foreign trade at the beginning of the century was characterized by high growth rates. At the same time, after a two-year break, export figures in dollar terms began to exceed import ones. Thus, in 2003 the turnover of the Russian Federation was 210.8 billion dollars. This is a quarter more than in the previous year, 2002. In December 2003, the foreign trade turnover reached a 15-year high of $22.3 billion. Export growth was driven by exceptionally favorable oil and other energy prices. In the next year, 2004, the market situation remained the same. In January, exports amounted to 11 billion dollars.

Analysis of the state of trade in 2015

At the beginning of the year, there was a sharp drop in the exchange rate of the ruble and oil prices, the introduction of new sanctions foreign countries. Foreign trade of the Russian Federation also suffered from this. The decline in turnover was felt by ordinary consumers. As of January 2015, the volume amounted to 38 billion rubles, having decreased by 34%. Exports decreased by 29%, and imports - by 41%. Such declines are primarily due to the low exchange rate of the national currency. Statistical authorities calculated that the cost of exported products decreased by 6.3%, and imported - by 7.2%. The price of a barrel of oil fell to $47. This figure is comparable to the 2008 crisis indicators. In addition, according to the Ministry of Economic Development, there was a significant decline in investment in construction, fixed capital, and the pace of manufacturing production decreased. This, in turn, had an impact on the volume of output of goods, imports and exports.

Thus, foreign trade indicators for January 2015 turned out to be the lowest for the last 4 years. The volume of purchases of equipment and machinery, goods of the chemical and metallurgical industries has significantly decreased. A decrease in indicators was also noted during 2014. It intensified by autumn in connection with the introduction of sanctions against the Russian Federation. Significantly decreased investment, the provision of loans to domestic companies by foreign financial institutions. In addition, some sanctions affected the import and export of products from a number of countries. Russia's introduction of a food embargo also affected the decline in imports.

Foreign economic activity: training course Makhovikova Galina Afanasievna

1.1 Foreign trade and foreign economic activity: concept, features, development trends

Foreign economic relations- these are international economic, trade, political relations, including the exchange of goods, various forms economic assistance, scientific and technical cooperation, specialization, production cooperation, provision of services and joint ventures. back to basic shapes foreign economic relations include the following.

1. Trade. With the help of this form, the sale and purchase of consumer goods is carried out: clothes, shoes, perfumes, haberdashery, religious goods, as well as food products and raw materials. There is also a trade exchange of products for industrial consumption: components, parts, spare parts, rolled products, bearings, units, etc. It is possible to purchase goods and equipment for public consumption: urban transport, equipment for hospitals, clinics, resorts, medicines, devices and security equipment environment. The purchase and sale of products of intellectual labor is carried out: licenses, know-how, engineering products.

2. Joint venture. This form of foreign economic relations can be implemented in the industrial sector at factories, factories, enterprises; in agriculture, science, education, medicine, transport, culture, art, credit and finance.

3. Service. Widespread in international business belongs to intermediary, banking, exchange services, insurance, tourism, international transport cargo. The number of services provided by computer networks available in the developed countries of the world.

4. Cooperation, assistance. Scientific, technical and economic cooperation is becoming more and more widespread in foreign economic relations. Scientific and cultural exchanges are intensifying, and the number of sporting events is growing.

Foreign trade on present stage is the most intensively developing form of international economic relations.

The interest of almost all countries in expanding their foreign trade is associated primarily with the need to sell national products in foreign markets, the need to obtain certain goods from outside, and, finally, the desire to extract high profits through the international division of labor, which makes it possible to achieve savings. social labor in the process of rational production and the exchange of its results between different countries.

A priority in foreign trade should be considered a focus on the development of exports, since the purchase of goods by import can be carried out either in the presence of foreign currency or a competitive product.

To get the most economic effect it is necessary to export science-intensive products that allow obtaining the maximum foreign exchange earnings per unit of labor costs, and those goods that have the highest labor costs per unit of invested funds should be imported.

The difference between the concepts of "foreign economic relations" and "foreign economic activity" is as follows. Foreign economic relations refer to the level of macroeconomic (interstate) regulation, and foreign economic activity - to the micro level, i.e., to the level of firms and enterprises.

The functions of Russia's foreign economic relations are currently aimed at ensuring export deliveries for federal needs and interstate economic (including currency, credit, trade) agreements Russian Federation. Foreign economic relations are being implemented "from top to bottom": the volumes and the list of goods and services are determined at the government level. They are implemented through the state order system (through organizations designated as state customers) and through limits with centralized provision of material and foreign exchange resources.

Foreign economic activity is a set of production, economic, organizational, economic and commercial functions firms and enterprises.

According to the Law "On state regulation foreign trade activities» this activity is understood as entrepreneurship in the field of international exchange of goods, works, services, information, results of intellectual activity. The concept of foreign economic relations is much broader.

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Trade is a type of economic activity that promotes the exchange of goods, the purchase and sale of goods, and the subsequent operations associated with this process: customer service, circulation of goods, their path from the stage of production to final consumption. Trading is an old science that is constantly changing and improving. Analyzes the state of internal and external economic relations. Economic relations occur through trade, in which the purpose and state of economic activity is initially determined. Then find out advantageous sides which must necessarily come to uniform terms of the transaction, and further, taking into account all the political, material, legal and moral interests of the counterparties, at the end the process ends with the conclusion of the transaction.

This multi-character process, in which organs take part state power, trade departments, private enterprises, associations, firms and other structures, and separately many thousands of people. So complex issue can only be solved scientifically.

It can be recalled that in the 17th and 18th centuries in Great Britain the concepts of "economy" and "trade" were considered identical (or similar). Economic activity was studied long ago, even before the conception of bourgeois political economy (17th century). What we know today about modern concepts such as price, exchange, trade, income, etc., was already well known in Egypt and ancient China. Trade, as a science, was developed during the period of the slave-owning society, in which trade influenced the movement industrial relations. AT ancient world when there was no industrial capital, commercial capital, money played a significant role in the development of human society. Trade is the result of the conclusion of contracts directly related to the exchange of prices, goods, the exchange of raw materials and semi-finished products, as well as certain details to create conditions for the production of a product; exchange of results of scientific and technical research.

Trade shows what needs to be produced and in what quantity. This is a question that needs to be studied in detail and in depth.

Almost all developed countries have a special body executive power, which manages issues related to trade (Ministry of Trade with separate departments: domestic trade, foreign trade, trade in consumer goods, trade in means of production.)

Foreign and domestic trade

Trade is divided into external and internal.

Internal, in turn, is divided into wholesale and retail trade.

The outer one is subdivided into and export.

Domestic trade- this is the trade that is distributed only within a certain country. It can be divided into two categories - wholesale and retail. Wholesale trade differs from retail trade in that in wholesale trade there is usually a purchase of goods from dealers or from a manufacturer in large volumes. Accordingly, the price will be lower than the retail price. At the same time, it provides sales of goods in small volumes to the final consumer. There are cases when manufacturers can engage in retail trade bypassing the intermediary for the purpose of higher income.

International trade are international export-import trade relations. For some countries, export (export of goods) is the basis foreign economic relations. This set of relationships between different countries and forms foreign trade. Over time, an international specialty was formed in this industry, which is the foundation of international trade relations. Foreign trade originated during subsistence farming, and developed sufficiently in that era.

Wholesale- this is trading activity for the sale of products, buys in large quantities for the purpose of resale or other purposes.

Market activity covers both producers and consumers, as well as intermediaries who are engaged in establishing relations between them. These include wholesale intermediaries, which are extremely useful for both parties. Wholesale is an important link for the distribution of goods movement.

Wholesale trade is necessary due to the following conditions:

Uneven distribution on the territories of countries of industrial enterprises that produce certain types and names of consumer goods. This contributes to the need for commodity exchange among enterprises located in different regions of the country;

Production economic and geographical conditions, focus of production in various regions of the country;

A large number of goods are produced by many enterprises; therefore, these resources should be attracted into the trade turnover and assistance should be provided to enterprises for the marketing of products;

Wholesale tasks:

Attracting suppliers of products for retail enterprises

Large orders from manufacturers

Drawing up a range of goods and adapting it to the needs of end users;

Goods quality improvement and renewal policy;

Providing assistance to manufacturers in the marketing of their goods;

Information service;

Taking risk in trade.

It should be concluded that manufacturers and retailers have every reason to use wholesale trade services.

Retail It was formed as a commodity exchange process aimed at meeting the needs of people in the form of free sales of goods and services that are valuable to them. Retail trade combines the interests of the entrepreneur in making a profit and the needs of the client in obtaining various goods and services. Same way retail shows the quality of life of society, since this type of trade is based on the theory of individual choice. Manufacturing companies produce goods and sell them to enterprises, which in turn are engaged in wholesale or retail trade.

The main tasks of retail trade:

Purchasing goods from wholesale enterprise and realizing them to anyone who wants them in their original form.

Makes up a range of products that are of interest or are necessary for the client.

Show samples of goods for their further order.

Delivery of goods that were previously ordered from catalogs, various samples, samples.

The organization of peddling is when a retailer walks with his products from house to house.

Organization of street trading, when the seller minimizes the shopping path for the client. At the time appointed by him, he comes to a residential area in order to sell various products to residents. Most often it can be food.

Carrying out petty trade - sellers offer their products on the shelves, which are set up on the streets with a large crowd of people or in places where a variety of events are held.

Retail Functions

Studying the question of the demand for goods and their supply, maintaining a balance between supply and demand

Formation of the assortment, analyze the degree of satisfaction of needs for goods

Influence on production issues in order to expand the range and increase the volume of goods;

Formation of commodity stock and its further maintenance at the required level;

Information work of retail enterprises;

Implementation technological works with the goods, such as storage, packing, packaging. Questions regarding placement and display on trading platform, improving trade technologies and improving customer service;

Formation of customer demand;

Choice more effective ways sales of goods;

Providing customers with services that facilitate the process of buying and using goods (For example, pre-ordering, selling goods on credit, delivery.)

Meeting the needs of residents in goods;

Bringing goods to customers by moving them to retail outlets;

Improving trading technologies and improving customer service.

Some features of trading

1. Finishing the process of commodity production, further retail trade.

2. Trade is a source of money circulation in the country.
3. Accumulation Money, the need to comply with applicable norms and rules for organizing cash circulation
4. Providing non-core ways to sell goods to the final consumer
5. High capital, depending on the results of trading and how quickly the funds turn around.
7. The range and pricing policy depends directly on demand, the economic composition of the population served.
8. Trading income is subject to temporary, seasonal fluctuations. For example, during the holidays, the rise in prices for various goods is activated.

Trade Functions:

sale of goods. This function links production with consumption;

delivery of consumer goods to the consumer. Trade is the movement of goods from producers to consumers.

maintaining a balance between supply and demand. Trade also points to the question of the volume of goods produced and its range.

marketing functions that analyze prices, create utility services, produce goods, etc.

Black

Black market- this is trade in goods or services that is limited or prohibited by law. (For example, weapons, drugs, sexual services, etc.) Often, the black market is directly related to smuggling and has links with organized crime.

Causes of the black market

The black market is present in almost every country where a ban on certain group goods or services. The formula "Demand - gives rise to supply" also works here. As elsewhere, there is an indefinite number of people trying to get what they need, bypassing all conceivable prohibitions. Here it will be appropriate when there are some people who want to cash in on this. For natural reasons, the black market provides more income than legal trade.

Types of black markets

There are such types of black markets:

Trade in poaching goods, trade in endangered species of animals;

bootlegging. Selling alcohol during Prohibition. Countries professing Islam, where alcohol is equated with drug trafficking.

Drug business.

Sale of pirated multimedia products, hacking programs.

stolen.

Clonlegging. Trade in human organs.

Prostitution.

Slave trade. Human trafficking.

gambling industry.

Trade in pornographic materials in countries where they are prohibited. Child pornography.

The UN appreciated the black market wildlife in 8-10 billion dollars for 2015. Every year, illegal sales of ivory range from $165 million to $188 million.

Internet trading

Internet trading- is the sale of goods or services through Internet sites. Customers make a shopping list online, then choose a payment and delivery method. That allows buyers to conveniently and affordably make purchases without leaving home. Internet trading has also made prices more affordable, and the choice of goods has become much wider, previously inaccessible to residents of small towns. Internet commerce has a high potential, since the client is limited only to accessing the Internet, and, as mentioned earlier, can make purchases from any city or village. Also commercial activity on the Internet gives some advantages to the owners. For example, the maintenance of an online store is several times cheaper than a regular store: you do not need to hire staff, cleaning services, window dressing, you do not need to rent a site.

WTO - World Trade Organization

it international organization, which has existed since 1995 as an international body that creates and is responsible for all rules regarding trade between countries.

Tasks of the WTO:

Assistance and control in the trading process based on special rules.
2. Settling disputed trade issues between countries.
3. Responsible for organizing trade negotiations.
4. WTO member countries must publish their trade rules. They should also have special bodies that are responsible for the transfer of information to other members of the WTO.

The priority goal of the WTO remains the liberalization of world trade and the creation of conditions for fair competition. At the end of 2014, 160 countries are members of the WTO.

The main advantages of WTO membership: