Alfred Chandler strategy and structure. A. Chandler, J. Thomson, P. Lawrence, J. Lorsch and studies of the influence of the external environment on the organization. D. McGregor and the X-Y theory

Strategy has been known in military affairs for more than five centuries, but its first definition was given by Carl von Clausewitz* almost 200 years ago, “there is a use individual campaigns for the purposes of war”, and the war itself “is nothing but the continuation of state policy by other means”.

The term "Strategy" in relation to management began to be applied relatively recently, from the 60s. last century. However, the organization of large industrial corporations underwent significant changes already between 1920 and 1960, when it became common to divide the acceptance strategic decisions and strategic management and operational control and management. Strategy, as Alfred Chandler, the author of one of the pioneering works in the field, said in 1962 strategic planning, - "this is the definition of the main long-term goals and objectives of the enterprise and the approval of the course of action and the allocation of resources necessary to achieve these goals" [2, 1962].

The content of the strategy was determined in 1980 by James Quinn: “An effective formal strategy should contain three major components: (1) the main goals (or tasks) of the activity; (2) the most significant policy elements that direct or limit the field of action; and (3) the sequence of main actions (or programs) aimed at achieving the set goals and not going beyond the chosen policy.

AT this definition the concept of "politics" is introduced, in this interpretation it is close to the interpretation: "... Politics in the modern sense usually comes down to the study of those goals that the state should strive for or really strive for, and those means that it uses to achieve its goals" . In other words, politicians determine and limit our ability to choose goals and means to achieve them, since not all ends and means are good.

In this regard, Ansofft's definition of strategy corresponds to the definition of politics: "At its core, strategy is a set of rules for decision making by which the organization is guided in its activities”, i.e. according to Ansoft, strategy is the rules (restrictions) for choosing goals and means to achieve them. But this is purely a terminological difference.

Thus, in short, a strategy is a program of an enterprise's activities to achieve its goal. At the same time, the strategy (program of activities) should not go beyond the adopted policies and available resources.
__________
* Karl Philipp Gottlieb von Clausewitz (German Carl Philipp Gottlieb von Clausewitz) 1780 -1831, director of the General Military Academy, the famous Prussian commander, philosopher and theorist, who made a complete revolution in the theory of war with his writings.

**Chandler, Alfred Dupont Jr. (1918) Chandler, Alfred Dupont, one of the founders of modern business theory, who had a significant impact on the development of strategic management.

Literature
1. Clausewitz K. About the war. — M.: Gosvoenizdat, 1934. / Clausewitz K. Vom Krieg. 1832/34.
2. Chandler A.D. Strategy and Structure: A Chapter in the History of Industrial Enterprises. Cambridge, Mass, MIT Press, 1962
3. James Brian Quinn Strategy for change. In the book: Mintzberg G., Quinn J.B., Ghoshal S. Strategic process / Per. from English. Ed. Yu.N. Kapturevsky. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001. - 688 p.
4. Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron. - 1890-1907.
5. Ansoff I. Strategic management St. Petersburg: Peter. 1999. 358 p.

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This article was written many years ago. Over the years, we have carried out a number of projects and theoretical studies in the direction of enterprise strategy and strategic management. The last of them are reflected in the articles "" - the journal "Problems of Economics and Management" No. 12, 2016, "" - the journal Management Today" No. 3, 2017, "" and "" - the journal Management Today" No. 1 and No. 2, 2018 .

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Alfred graduated from Harvard in 1940; During World War II, he served in the Navy. In the future, Chandler will return to Harvard and receive a Ph.D. in history there. For some time Alfred taught at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) and Johns Hopkins University (Johns Hopkins University); it wasn't until 1970 that he was given a place at Harvard Business School.

In his research, Chandler drew extensively on the work of one of his predecessors, Henry Varnum Poor, one of the leading railway industry analysts and founder of Standard & Poor's; it was on the basis of Poor's work that Alfred's doctoral dissertation was created. .

In the early 1960s, Chandler began to study the really big organizations. In 1962, his "Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the Industrial Enterprise" was published; this work analyzed in some detail the organization of activities in "E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company", New Jersey "Standard Oil", "General Motors" and "Sears, Roebuck and Co." It was then that Alfred first demonstrated that the birth management organizations became a logical development of the business strategy of corporations. The particular importance of the right selection of managers in organizations of this level has been carefully demonstrated in The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business. Chandler continued to develop these themes already in the 90s - in the work "Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism" ("Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism"); he later - along with Franco Amatori and Takashi Hikino - acted as editor of an entire anthology of works on these topics. The main masterpiece of Alfred, however, to this day remains the "Visible Hand".

Chandler often wrote about the importance of getting the management structure of an enterprise right; according to him, this importance became even more pronounced in the 19th century - just then, new technologies based on steam and electricity made it possible to seriously develop most industrial organizations; it was from that moment that companies began to depend primarily on the invested capital. The mobilization of capital required even more workers and management staff. Gradually the administrative structure and managerial activity replaced what Adam Smith called the "invisible hand of the market."

Alfred is now considered, along with economist Oliver Williamson and historians Louis Galambos, Robert H. Wiebe, and Thomas C. Cochran, one of the most talented modern business historians. Of course, Chandler also has opponents - many major historians defiantly ignore his works; in business, sociology, and economics, however, Alfred's theories have proved incredibly useful. Thus, even before Chandler's publications, sociologists of the world believed that between government, corporate and non-profit organizations there is no fundamental difference; Alfred managed to prove the opposite.

2005 BULLETIN OF ST. PETERSBURG UNIVERSITY Ser. 8. Issue. 2 (No. 16)

CLASSICS OF MANAGEMENT THEORY

N. P. Drozdova

THE LIFE AND WORK OF ALFRED CHANDLER - "SCALE AND VARIETY" (section preface)

Our magazine has already published material about Alfred D. Chandler, Jr. They included a fairly detailed analysis of the scientific contribution of this recognized business historian [Blagov, 2002] and a brilliant detailed review [Tees, 2002] of his work Scale and Diversity: Driving Forces of Industrial Capitalism. In this book, based on a comparative study of the functioning of the 200 largest manufacturing companies, Chandler painted an epic picture of the development of big business in three countries (UK, Germany and the US) over the course of a century.

However, Chandler is a master not only of the monumental genre (in the work "Scale and Variety ..." 850 p.). You can verify this by reading his article published in this issue of the journal. In it, the author once again turns to the analysis managerial enterprise 1 and key factors that ensure market success through economies of scale and diversity. According to Chandler, necessary conditions are three related investments: 1) in manufacturing facilities, 2) in a marketing and distribution network, and 3) in hiring a team of highly qualified managers. Chandler shows that "over time, the logic of the managerial enterprise has not become obsolete" [Chandler, 2005, p. 156] - the development of, for example, the computer industry, for example, has been subordinated to its principles, however, with one historical difference, which is that the first computer production was mastered by management enterprises operating in related fields

1 The definition of the concept of "management enterprise", which A. Chandler introduced into scientific circulation, see: [Chandler, 2005, p. 149]. © N. P. Drozdova, 2005

industry, not a newly established business. But in general, the creation and growth of large management enterprises are currently subject to the same patterns as in the late 19th - first half of the 20th century.

The main idea of ​​the author can be formulated as follows: in order to be competitive on a global scale, a company needs to be large. A large company size, according to Chandler, is illogical mainly when top managers ignore the principles of a managerial enterprise and acquire businesses with little or no organizational ability to secure a competitive position.

It is difficult to disagree with this conclusion. The expansion of the company's business entails additional management costs, and here the question arises with all acuteness about the organizational abilities of its leaders. An effective management hierarchy becomes the basis for the stability, power and continuous growth of the company. By the way, E. Penrose came to a similar conclusion in her already classic work, published back in 1959. In her opinion, the growth rate of the firm depends on the growth of knowledge within it, and the size of the firm is determined by the degree to which the effectiveness of administration corresponds to the expansion of its boundaries.

However, the question of optimal size firms are hardly reduced to the problem of competent management. In the world modern business other trends are also observed. Growing use by firms information technologies and automating administrative tasks that in the past were available only to large firms are weakening the advantages of size in manufacturing and distribution. Due to the increasing efficiency and internationalization of capital markets and the opportunities to raise money, medium-sized firms can compete with or even outperform large organizations. In many industries, small and medium-sized firms are particularly prone to innovation, although larger firms may spend more on research and development. In general, “existing trends indicate a move away from giant corporations; their advantages are clearly weakening, while the costs of their operation, which have been ignored for a long time, become too obvious” [Furubotn, Richter, 2005, p. 105]. It is no coincidence that in this regard, the practice of outsourcing is becoming more widespread in companies as effective tool savings on intra-company transaction costs.

Many scholars emphasize the growing role of small and medium-sized firms in the US economy. In particular, P. Drucker writes that from 1965 to 1985 in

the country has grown an “entrepreneurial economy”, which has created about 40 million jobs in small and medium-sized institutions and industrial enterprises, and giant industrial corporations reduced the number of employees [Druker, 1992, p. 9-10]. Once again, the United States was one step ahead of the countries of Western Europe, where the number of jobs decreased sharply during this period. However, these trends are also observed at the global level. Charles Handy, in his book The Elephant and the Flea, notes that “the share of the largest fifty companies in the global economy is declining, not growing. It decreased from 30% to 28% in five years, from 1993 to 1998, and is expected to fall to 15% by 2020.” “Fleas will own more and more of the elusive intellectual property, and it will only be borrowed to elephants” [Handy, 2004, p. 81, 86].

A detailed biography of A. Chandler has not yet been published. Brief essays about him are published in well-known biographical directories: the annuals "Who's Who in America" ​​(from 1990 to 1998) and "Who's Who in the World" (1994 and 1995), as well as in the biennial year of the reference book "Who's Who in the West" (1988-1989 and 1990-1991). A description of Chandler's life path up to 1988 can be found in the preface to a collection of his writings.

Alfred Dupont Chandler, Jr. was born on September 15, 1918 in Guyencourt, Delaware, USA. In 1940, he graduated from Harvard College at Harvard University and received a Bachelor of Arts (AB) degree.

During World War II, Chandler served as a Lieutenant Commander in the United States Navy Reserve. Demobilized in 1945, he returned to Harvard and received a Master of Arts (AM) in 1947 and a Ph.D. in history in 1952.

The honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Life was awarded to Chandler at the Universities of Belgium: Leuven (1976) and Antwerp (1979). In 1982 and 1987 He received honorary Doctor of Humanities (LHD) degrees from Babson College and Ohio State University, respectively. In addition, he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws (Doctor of Laws (LLD)) degree from York University (Canada) (1988), New England College (1992), Harvard (1995) and Delaware (2002) Universities (University Delaware). Chandler received an honorary doctorate in 2002. business administration(DBA) at Northwestern University (USA) (Northeastern University).

Chandler's professional career began at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where in 1950-1951. he was a junior researcher, and then went from an ordinary teacher to a professor (1960),

occupying in 1953 and 1955. research fellow at Harvard University. From 1963 to 1971, Chandler was professor of history and head of the department (1966-1970) at the University. Johns Hopkins, and from 1971 to 1989 - Professor of Business History. Straus2 Harvard Business School. In 1979 he gave guest lectures at the European Institute of Advanced Studies in Management (Brussels). Since 1989 Chandler has been Distinguished Professor at Harvard Business School.

Throughout his career, Chandler held a number of official positions: consultant at the US Naval War College (1954), director of the Center for the Study of Advanced American history(Center for Study of Recent American History) University. John Hopkins (1964-1971), Chairman of the US Atomic Energy Commission's Advisory History Committee (1969-1977). In 1970-1971. Chandler - member of the National Development Advisory Board vocational education. He also contributed to the 5-volume collection of the Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower and the 4-volume collection of The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt.

Alfred Chandler is the recipient of many awards. In 1958-1959. He is a Guggenheim Fellow3 (Guggenheim Fellowship). This scholarship is awarded for excellence in scientific research or creative achievement in the arts. In 1978, Chandler won two awards for The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business: the Pulitzer Prize4 for History (Pulitzer

2 Jesse Isidor Stroe (Jesse Isidor Straus, 1872-1936) - the son of the famous millionaire Isidor Straus, owner of the largest Macy's department store. He graduated from Harvard University in 1893, was president of R. H. Macy & Company. In 1933-1936 - ambassador to France.

3 In 1925, a representative of one of the richest industrial dynasties in the world - the Guggenheim family - former Senator Simon Guggenheim (Simon Guggenheim, 1867-1941) and his wife, in memory of their deceased son John Simon, founded the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, known as the Guggenheim Foundation . Other members of the family set up their own foundations, notably Charitable foundation Daniel and Florence Guggenheim, Solomon Guggenheim Foundation, Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation.

4 Joseph Pulitzer (Joseph Pulitzer, 1847-1911) - the legendary American journalist of Hungarian origin, who created one of the best American publishing houses of periodicals, the owner and editor of the New York newspapers: World and Evening World. According to Pulitzer's will, the School of Journalism at Columbia University was created and a foundation named after him was founded, from which, since 1917, the highest American award for journalists, writers and playwrights has been awarded annually.

prize for History), which is awarded for the best book on American history, and the Bancroft Prize5 (Bancroft prize), awarded annually by Columbia University to the authors of the most significant works on American history and diplomacy. Chandler's Scale and Diversity also received two awards: the 1991 National Book Award for Best Business and Management Book,6 and the 1992 Leo Melamed Award,7 awarded every two years for outstanding scientific research of teachers of business schools. Finally, in 2000, the Academy international business 8 Chandler was awarded the title of Eminent Scholar in recognition of his contributions to international business research.

Alfred Chandler is a member of many academies, associations, scientific and other societies, in particular:

♦ American Academy of Arts and Sciences;

♦ Economic History Association (1966-1970 - member of the Board, 1971-1972 - president of this association);

♦ Organization of American Historians - the largest association of American scholars (19691972 - member of the Board);

5 George Bancroft (1800-1891) was an American diplomat and historian. In 1845-1846. - US Secretary of the Navy. The main work is "History of the USA" in 10 volumes.

6 Since 1950, the National Book Award has been awarded by the Association of American Publishers to two the best books last year: one award for the best work fiction, the other - for a journalistic or documentary work.

7 Leo Melamed (born in 1932) is a native of Poland, a lawyer by training. He is currently Distinguished Chairman and Senior Counsel of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange and President and CEO of Melamed & Associates, Inc., a global market consulting organization. Melamed is an innovator in financial market, he is recognized as the creator of financial futures, which the Nobel laureate in economics Merton Miller in 1992 called "the most important invention of the last 20 years." Melamed writes a lot, gives lectures on the problems of financial futures. Some of his writings can be found at: http://www.leomelamed.com. In 1978 high school business of the University of Chicago established a prize named after him.

8 The Academy of International Business was established in 1959. It is a global community of entrepreneurs and academics dedicated to the study and dissemination of knowledge in international business. Currently, the academy unites about 3,000 members from 65 countries.

♦ the Society for the History of Technology founded in 1958 (in 1972-1975 he was a member of the Executive Board of this organization);

♦ The American Historical Association, the leading professional body for historians in the United States, formed in 1884. scientific achievements(award for Scholarly Distinction) to those distinguished historians, most professional career which took place in the USA;

♦ Society of American: Historians;

♦ Massachusetts Historical Society (coun. 1977-1983, John F. Kennedy award 2003);

♦ the American Antiquarian Society founded back in 1812;

♦ Association for the history of business (Business History Conference), of which he was president in 1977-1978. In 2002, Chandler received the Association's Lifetime Achievement Award for all his achievements;

♦ American Philosophical Society;

♦ British Academy - National Academy of Humanities and Social Sciences;

♦ Japanese Academy;

♦ Academy of Management - the leading professional association for management research and education in the United States. In 1985, Chandler was awarded the Academy's Scholarly Contribution to Management Award.

The recognition of the scientific merits of A. Chandler was the establishment of scholarships named after him. In particular, the Grants and Awards Committee of the Business History Association awards a grant to them. Alfred Chandler to graduate students to participate in the Association's annual conference. Since 1991, Harvard Business School has provided $15,000 annually in scholarships to them. Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., Traveling Fellowships for research in areas such as business history and institutional economic history. In addition, another recently opened at the Harvard Business School unique opportunity receiving scholarships under the Program. Alfred Chandler for international studies in business history (The Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., International Visiting Scholars in Business History Program). Moreover, the financial support of the invited fellows is provided personally by A. Chandler. Each year, $7,000 is allocated for these purposes to two scientists from different countries.

Alfred Chandler is currently actively collaborating with the Faculty of Management at St Petersburg University. He is a member of the International Scientific Advisory Board of the Russian Journal of Management, which is published at our faculty. The teachers are translating one of his last significant works: “Entering the electronic age: an epic story of industries that produce consumer electronics and computers".

Indeed, to use Chandler's own terminology, he can be called a "pioneer" in business history, and the title of the book - "scale and diversity" - can serve as an accurate and succinct description of the scientist's life and creative achievements.

Literature

Blagov Yu. E. Alfred D. Chandler and business history // Vestn. St. Petersburg. university Ser.

Management. 2002. Issue. 4. S. 95-101. Drucker P.F. Market: how to become a leader. Practice and principles. M.: Book Chamber International, 1992.

Thies, D.J., The Driving Forces of Industrial Capitalism: A Look at Chandler's Scale and Diversity, Vestn. St. Petersburg. university Ser. Management. 2002. Issue. 4. S. 102-146. Furubotn E. G., Richter R. New institutional economic theory firms // Russian magazine management. 2005. V. 3. No. 1. S. 85-126. Handy C. The Elephant and the Flea: The Future large corporations and small business / Per. With

English M.: Alpina Business Books, 2004. Chandler A. D. Jr. Iron logic of industrial success // Vestn. St. Petersburg. unta. Ser. Management. 2005. Issue. 2. S. 168-189. Chandler A.D., Jr. The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business.

Belknap Press: Cambridge, MA, 1977. Chandler A. D., Jr. Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism / with the

assistance of T. Hikino. Belknap Press: Cambridge, MA, 1990. Chandler A. D., Jr. Inventing the Electronic Century: The Epic Story of the Consumer

Electronics and Computer Industries. Free Press: N. Y., 2001. Penrose E. The Theory of the Growth of the Firm. Blackwell: Oxford, 1959. The Essential Alfred Chandler: Essays Toward a Historical Theory of Big Business / edited and with an introduction by T. K. McCraw. Harvard Business School Press: Boston, MA, 1988.

Main works of A. D. Chandler

Chandler A. D., Jr., Mazlish B. (eds.) Leviathans: Multinational Corporations and the New

global history. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2005. Chandler A. D., Jr. Inventing the Electronic Century: The Epic Story of the Consumer

Electronics and Computer Industries. Free Press: N. Y., 2001. Chandler A. D., Jr., Cortada J. W. (eds.) A Nation Transformed by Information: How In-

formation Has Shaped the United States from Colonial Times to the Present. Oxford University Press: Oxford; N.Y., 2000.

Chandler A. D., Jr., Hagstrom P., SolvellO. (eds.) The Dynamic Firm: The Role of Technology, Strategy, Organization and Regions. Oxford University Press: Oxford; N.Y., 1998.

Chandler A. D., Jr., AmatoriF., Hikino T. (eds.) Big Business and the Wealth of Nations. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge; N.Y., 1997.

Chandler A. D., Jr., McCraw T. K., Tedlow R. S. Management: Past and Present: A Casebook on the History of American Business. South-Western College Pub.: Cincinnati, OH, 1996.

Chandler A.D., Jr. Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism. Belknap Press: Cambridge, MA, 1990.

Chandler A. D., Jr., Tedlow R. S. The Coming of Managerial Capitalism: A Casebook on the History of American Economic Institutions. R.D. Irwin: Homewood, I.L., 1985.

Chandler A.D., Jr. The Railroads, the Nation's First Big Business Source and Readings. Arno Press: N. Y., 1981.

Chandler A. D., Jr., Daems H. (eds.) Managerial Hierarchies: Comparative Perspectives on the Rise of the Modern Industrial Enterprise. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, 1980.

Chandler A.D., Jr. The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business. Belknap Press: Cambridge, MA, 1977.

Chandler A. D., Jr., Salsbury S. Pierre S. Du Pont and the Making of the Modern Corporation. Harper & Row: N. Y., 1971.

Chandler A.D., Jr. (ed.) The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1970.

Chandler A. D., Jr., Bruchey S., Galambos L. (eds.) The Changing Economic Order; Readings in American Business and Economic History. Brace & World: N. Y., Harcourt, 1968.

Chandler A.D., Jr. Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the Industrial Enterprise. M.I.T. Press: Cambridge, 1962.

• Founder of modern business history.
• He was the first to systematize information about the development of modern large business.
• Contributed to the formation of understanding of the concepts: "strategy", "structure of the organization", "organizational abilities".
• For success in the competitive struggle, the most important are internal, not external factors.
• Developed the main ideas about the development of modern diversified, multi-divisional firms.

Structure functions:

1. Give internal stability to the organization
2. Make it understandable
3. Create order in resource usage:

Minimize costs and focus members of the organization on results rather than effort expended

Favorable conditions for quality solutions

The best structure is the one that best allows an organization to:

1. Effectively interact with the external environment
2. Distribute and direct the efforts of your employees productively and expediently
3. Satisfy customer needs
4. Achieve your goals with high efficiency.

Organizational structure - determines the relationship (subordination) between the functions performed by the employees of the organization.

Organizational structure is a sustainable way of interrelationships between functional areas and management levels within an organization

Strategy functions:

1. Determine the long-term goals of the enterprise
2. Schedule actions
3. Allocate the resources necessary to solve the tasks.

Types of organizational structures of enterprise management:

1. Linear (linear, linear-functional, linear-staff):

The issue of centralization of power is power in the hands of one person: he is the main bearer of power and control, he is constantly included in the process

Scope - small or family businesses 2-3 levels

Advantages:

high responsibility,

Fast decision making process,

High response to the market

An informal approach to motivating and controlling staff.

Flaws:

Dependence on the scale of the personality of the one at the top,

Contradictions between the owners and the management team.

· Linear staff

Advisers appear in the company who advise the manager on their specific issues (lawyer, expert, economist)

Advantages:

Simple and tough

Distribution of responsibility and control,

The freedom of the manager from operational work, the opportunity to look at the strategy and the future,

Strengthening the depth and strategic nature of decisions.

Flaws:

Low degree of responsibility of the headquarters, the decision is made by the head,

Scope of application: trade, marketing, transport, mediation, audit firms, education. Small and medium enterprises, small scale of activity

· Linear-functional:

Scope of application: production, marketing and finance in trading companies; etc. Branches: sedentary type of metallurgy, resource.

Advantages:

Room for strategic decision-making from the central leader,

Several persons / structures subordinate to the leader, the decision is behind him,

Stimulates business and professional specialization,

Reduces duplication of effort and consumption material resources in functional areas.

Flaws:

Growing problems between functional and linear structures: departments may be more interested in achieving the goals and objectives of their departments than the overall goals of the entire organization. Increases the possibility of conflicts between functional areas,

The chain of commands is growing from the leader to the direct executor.

Conflicts:

Decision Priorities

Discipline

measure of influence

2. Divisional:

structures large enterprises

Grow out of functional (managers of functional units get more power). The head of the division receives very wide powers.

By clients

By product (type)

By territory/regions

An effective combination of centralization and decentralization. Harmonious combination.

Advantages:

Harmony,

Flexibility to respond by product/client/territory.

Flaws:

New resource allocation conflict

The center reserves the right to distribute profits (investments)

Division profit disparities

Comparative characteristics.

D. McGregor and X-Y theory.

Douglas MacGregor (1906-1964) - one of the most famous theorists, made a significant contribution to the development of the theory of organization in the second stage. His works are devoted to practical management (leadership). Most meaningful work is the book "The Human Side of Entrepreneurship" (1960). Observing the relationship between management and staff, McGregor came to the conclusion that the leader builds his behavior towards subordinates in accordance with his personal ideas about employees and their abilities. The conducted research allowed D. McGregor to characterize the management system from two opposite positions, each of which can be taken by the leader in relation to his subordinates. In a simplified variant of this system, positions are labeled appearing on opposite sides of the continuum. One of the extreme positions, reflecting the traditional view of management and control, is called theory X, and the other - theory B.

According to Theory X, a leader often expresses his attitude towards subordinates in the following way:

Every person has a natural reluctance to work, so she tries to avoid the cost of labor, at every opportunity;

Since people are unwilling to work, it is appropriate to coerce, control, manage or threaten to punish them if they do not make sufficient efforts to achieve the goal set by the organization;

Ambition is inherent in very few; such people try to avoid direct responsibility and prefer to be known;

Above all, people desire personal peace and need protection.

Theory B considers the opposite situation, in which subordination looks like a partnership and the formation of a team takes place in an ideal environment. It includes the following provisions:

The expenditure of physical and spiritual strength at work is as natural as during play or leisure, and under normal conditions a person does not refuse to perform certain duties;

The threat of punishment or external control is not the only means of stimulating the achievement of the organization's goal. People are endowed with the ability to self-manage and self-control in achieving the goals to which they are committed;

Tracking goals is a function of reward, that is, involvement in the activities of the organization provides that the reward for the activity will correspond to the fact that the tasks facing the team are completed;

Ingenuity and creativity are very common among the population, but in the conditions of highly developed technologies, they often go unnoticed.

According to the views of D. McGregor, theory X is management and control with the help of direct application authorities. In this case, a person acts as an object of power influence. Theory B, on the contrary, is based on the principle of integration or the creation of conditions under which the members of the organization can achieve the desired goals by directing their energy in the right direction.

The significance of D. McGregor's assumptions has led managers and writers in the field of organizational theory to carefully consider the relative advantages of different styles of leadership in an organization. Soon the main question in leadership research was: what does it mean to manage better?

A. Chandler, J. Thomson, P. Lawrence, J. Lorsch and impact studies external environment to the organization.

A significant contribution to the development of organization theory in the third stage was made by Alfred Chandler. The results of his research were reflected in the book "Strategy and Structure" (1962). A. Chandler found that with a change in the company's strategy, its organizational structure also changes accordingly. The need for strategic changes is dictated by the requirements of the external environment. Changing the conditions of the functioning of the organization leads to a change in strategy, and this has a direct impact on the organizational chart. Thus, A. Chandler showed that an increase in the volume of output is oriented towards mass production and results in a transition from functional organizational form block diagram division based.

Theoretical justification of the relationship environment and organization structures were performed by J. Thomson in the book "Organizations in Action", showing the difference between closed and open organizations. According to Thomson, a closed organization strives for certainty and is focused on internal factors related to the achievement of its goals. Open organization recognizes interdependence organizational structure and its environment, trying to achieve stabilization in its relations with the requirements of the external environment. J. Thomson stated that organizations are closely connected with their environment: they acquire resources in exchange for manufactured products, their technologies are based on the realities of the surrounding world.

Following A. Chandler and J. Thomson in 1967, a study of the influence of the external environment on the organization was conducted by Harvard Business School teachers Paul Lawrence and Jay Lorsh. The result of this collaboration was the book "Organization and Its Environment". Lawrence and Lorsch looked at organizational structures and management systems, comparing companies that perform best in a dynamic business (specialty plastics) with the best companies in a stable, little variable industry (container manufacturing). They found that the best firms in a stable business use a functional organization chart and simple control systems. Leaders in dynamic production, on the contrary, have a more decentralized form of organization and complex systems management than their competitors. Through a sociometric survey, P. Lawrence and J. Lorsch discovered a close correlation between the internal parameters of the organization and the characteristics of the external environment.

The obtained results and conclusions served as the basis for the formation of the concept of the organization as open system. Theorists put forward and substantiated the position that between the organization and the environment there are not only adaptation relations, but also the external characteristics of the environment, on the one hand, and the internal structural and behavioral characteristics, on the other hand, are inextricably linked by objective patterns and interdependencies (the environment, of course, is not the only determinant of the organization, in addition, independent variables of goals, technology, size, innovation, etc.) are important). By the beginning of the 70s of the XX century. this approach, called by P. Lawrence and J. Lorsche the organizational theory of "accidents", took shape as one of the directions of this science.

R. Cyert, J. March, G. Simon and the "garbage dump" model.

The modern concept of the development of views on the organization emphasizes informality, individual enterprise and evolution. The most famous theorists of this stage are Richard Cyert, James March, Galbert Simon.

R. Cyert and J. March tried to construct a theory of a firm operating in conditions of constant "quasi-vision" conflicts between departments in an organization, which, according to J. March, constitute "political coalitions". However, they considered the distribution of responsibility for achieving various goals, natural for any organization, and the "limited rationality" of managers in their desire to cope with management problems as sources of conflict. Any organization, according to Cyert-March, has sufficiently strong social mechanisms for resolving conflicts (compromising agreement on goals and objectives, the formation of reserves in case of unforeseen complications, switching attention from considering one problem to another, etc.). Developing ideas such as compensation (achieving satisfactory rather than maximum results in decision making), bounded rationality and sequential search. R. Cyert, G. Simon and J. March contributed to the view that managers are not at all devices for rational problem solving or countable machines. Decision makers do not operate under conditions of perfect knowledge, hence the uncertainty about the normal state of affairs.

Later, J. March and G. Simon put forward the concept of the organization as a "garbage heap", expressing their attitude to the conflict of goals and interests, the uncertainty of the problems of irrationality of decisions that take place in intra-organizational relations.

The garbage dump model applies to a particular type of organizational structure known as organized anarchy. Examples of "dumps" include universities, think tanks, research organizations, and perhaps some organizations in the health care system. In organizations of this kind, the benefits are not clearly defined and in many cases inconsistent. The technology here is fuzzy, participation is inflexible, with many examples of periodic replacement of workers on a "leave - come" basis, as well as continuous change of personnel as a result of staff turnover. Benefits or goals are determined in action, rather than the manager starting by setting a pre-selected goal and pursuing its achievement. Thus, the model of "garbage" can be considered as one of the models of irrational decision-making that managers have to deal with.

Each new direction of theoretical generalizations replaced the previous one in the form of an additional contribution to the evolution of the theory of organization along a new round of scientific, technical and socio-economic development of society.