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Stratification and hierarchical organization. Social stratification and mobility. Social (stratification) structure, social differentiation - stratification and hierarchical organization of various strata of society. Translation of "as well as by increasing the information

Under the social (stratification) structure is understood the stratification and hierarchical organization of various strata of society, as well as the totality of institutions and the relationship between them The term "stratification" originates from the Latin word stratum - layers, layer. Strata are large groups of people who differ in their position in social structure society.

All scientists agree that the basis of the stratification structure of society is the natural and social inequality of people. However, on the question of what exactly is the criterion for this inequality, their opinions differ. Studying the process of stratification in society, K. Marx called the fact that a person owns property and the level of his income as such a criterion. M. Weber added to them the social prestige and belonging of the subject to political parties, to power. Pitirim Sorokin considered the cause of stratification to be the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties in society. He also argued that the social space also has many other criteria for differentiation: it can be carried out according to citizenship, occupation, nationality, religious affiliation, etc. Finally, supporters of the theory of structural functionalism suggested relying on the social functions that perform certain social strata in society.

Historically, stratification, i.e., inequality in income, power, prestige, etc., arises with the birth of human society. With the advent of the first states, it becomes tougher, and then, in the process of development of society (primarily European), it gradually softens.

In sociology, four main types of social stratification are known - slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies, and the last type - open ones.

The first system of social stratification is slavery, which arose in antiquity and still persists in some backward regions. There are two forms of slavery: patriarchal, in which the slave has all the rights of a younger member of the family, and classical, in which the slave has no rights and is considered the property of the owner (a talking tool). Slavery was based on direct violence, and social groups in the era of slavery were distinguished by the presence or absence of civil rights.

The second system of social stratification should be recognized as caste build. A caste is a social group (stratum) in which membership is transferred to a person only by birth. The transition of a person from one caste to another during his lifetime is impossible - for this he needs to be born again. India is a classic example of a caste society. In India, there are four main castes, descended, according to legend, from various parts of the god Brahma:

a) brahmins - priests;

b) kshatriyas - warriors;

c) vaishyas - merchants;

d) Shudras - peasants, artisans, workers.

Special position occupy the so-called untouchables, who are not included in any caste and occupy a lower position.

The next form of stratification is estates. An estate is a group of people who have rights and obligations enshrined in law or custom, which are inherited. Usually in society there are privileged and unprivileged classes. For example, in Western Europe, the first group included the nobility and clergy (in France they were called that - the first estate and the second estate) to the second - artisans, merchants and peasants. In Russia until 1917, in addition to the privileged (the nobility, the clergy) and the unprivileged (the peasantry), there were also semi-privileged estates (for example, the Cossacks).

Finally, one more stratification system is class. The most complete definition of classes in the scientific literature was given by V. I. Lenin: “Classes are large groups of people that differ in their place in a historically defined system social production, according to their relation (for the most part fixed and formalized in laws) to the means of production, according to their role in the social organization of labor, and consequently, according to the methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that they dispose of. The class approach is often opposed to the stratification approach, although in fact class division is only a special case of social stratification.

Depending on the historical period in society, the following classes are distinguished as the main ones:

a) slaves and slave owners;

b) feudal lords and feudally dependent peasants;

c) the bourgeoisie and the proletariat;

d) the so-called middle class.

Since any social structure is a collection of all functioning social communities, taken in their interaction, the following elements can be distinguished in it:

a) ethnic structure (clan, tribe, nationality, nation);

b) demographic structure (groups are distinguished by age and sex);

c) settlement structure (urban residents, villager etc.);

d) class structure (bourgeoisie, proletariat, peasants, etc.);

e) professional and educational structure.

In the very general view In modern society, three stratification levels can be distinguished: the highest, the middle and the lowest. In economically developed countries, the second level is predominant, giving the society a certain stability. In turn, within each level there is also a hierarchically ordered set of different social strata. A person who occupies a certain place in this structure has the opportunity to move from one level to another, while raising or lowering his social status, or from one group located at any level to another located at the same level. This transition is called social mobility.

Social mobility sometimes leads to the fact that some people find themselves, as it were, at the junction of certain social groups, while experiencing serious psychological difficulties. Their intermediate position is largely determined by the inability or unwillingness, for whatever reason, to adapt to one of the interacting social groups. This phenomenon of finding a person, as it were, between two cultures, associated with his movement in social space, is called marginality. A marginal is an individual who has lost his former social status, deprived of the opportunity to engage in his usual business and, moreover, who has turned out to be unable to adapt to the new socio-cultural environment of the stratum within which he formally exists. The individual value system of such people is so stable that it cannot be replaced by new norms, principles, and rules. Their behavior is characterized by extremes: they are either excessively passive or very aggressive, easily step over moral standards and are capable of unpredictable actions. Among the marginals there may be these but the marginals - people who find themselves in a foreign environment as a result of migration; political outcasts - people who are not satisfied with the legal opportunities and legitimate rules of the socio-political struggle: religious outcasts - people who stand outside the confession or do not dare to make a choice between them, etc.

Qualitative changes taking place in the economic basis of modern Russian society have led to serious changes in its social structure. The social hierarchy that is currently being formed is distinguished by inconsistency, instability and a tendency to significant changes. The highest stratum (elite) today can be attributed to representatives state apparatus, as well as owners of big capital, including their top financial oligarchs. to the middle class in modern Russia include representatives of the class of entrepreneurs, as well as knowledge workers, highly qualified managers (managers). Finally, the lowest stratum is made up of workers of various professions, employed in medium and low-skilled labor, as well as clerical workers and public sector workers (teachers and doctors in state and municipal institutions). It should be noted that the process of social mobility between these levels in Russia is limited, which may become one of the prerequisites for future conflicts in society.

In the process of changing the social structure of modern Russian society, the following trends can be distinguished:

1) social polarization, i.e. stratification into rich and poor, deepening social and property differentiation;

2) mass downward social mobility;

3) mass change of residence by knowledge workers (the so-called "brain drain").

In general, it can be said that the main criteria that determine the social position of a person in modern Russia and his belonging to one or another stratification level are either the size of his wealth or belonging to power structures.

Social groups

People unite in the course of their life activity, and human society is a multitude of different social communities and groups.

A social community is a real-life, empirically fixed set of people, characterized by relative integrity and acting as an independent subject of historical and social action.

Signs of social community

similarity of living conditions.

Generality of needs.

Availability of joint activities.

Formation of own culture.

Social identification of community members, their self-assignment to this community.

Social communities are distinguished by an unusual variety of specific forms and types. They may vary:

By quantitative composition: from a few individuals to numerous masses;

By the duration of existence: from minutes and hours (for example, train passengers, a theater audience) to centuries and millennia (for example, ethnic groups (from gr. ethnos - people, nation);

According to the degree of connection between individuals: from relatively stable associations to very amorphous, random formations (for example, a queue, a crowd, an audience of listeners, fans of football teams), which are called “quasi-groups” (Latin quasi - supposedly, imaginary), or “social aggregations ". They are characterized by the fragility of relationships between contacting people.

Social communities are divided into stable (for example, a nation) and short-term (for example, passengers on a bus).

Types of social communities

Class communities and layers.

Historical forms of community.

Socio-demographic communities.

corporate communities.

Ethnic and territorial communities.

Communities that have developed depending on the interests of individuals.

In general, the whole set of real social communities can be divided into two large subclasses: mass and group (social groups).

Social groups are stable aggregates of people who have different, only their inherent characteristics (social status, interests, value orientations).

The emergence of social groups, firstly, is associated with the social division of labor and specialization of activities, and secondly, is caused by the historical diversity of living conditions, culture, social norms and values.

Collectively, social groups form the social structure of society.

The social structure of a society is the internal structure of a society or a social group, ordered by certain norms for the interaction of parts. The social structure organizes society into a single whole.

As already noted, in addition to the concept of "group", in sociology there is the concept of "quasi-group".

A quasi-group is an unstable, informal set of people, united, as a rule, by one or very few types of interaction, having an indefinite structure and system of values and norms.

There are the following kinds of quasigroup:

Audience - an association of people led by a communicator (for example, a concert or radio audience). Here there is such a type of social connections as the transmission-reception of information directly or with the help of technical means;

Fan group - an association of people based on a fanatical commitment to a sports team, rock band or religious cult;

A crowd is a temporary gathering of people united by some interest or idea.

Main properties of quasigroups:

Anonymity

Suggestibility

Social contagion

unconsciousness

AT modern conditions When a huge amount of work is required to coordinate activities and resources, the importance of organizations increases.

An organization is a large association of people acting on the basis of non-personal connections, created to achieve specific goals (hospitals, educational institutions, firms, financial companies, banks, government agencies, etc.). Organizations are, for the most part, "designed" - established for specific purposes, located in buildings or physical spaces specially designed to help achieve those goals.

Groups and organizations directly influence human behavior. This influence can be both positive and negative.

The impact of a small group on a person

positive

Relationships that develop in a group teach a person to comply with existing social norms, form value orientations that are assimilated by a person.

In a group, a person improves his communication skills

From the members of the group, a person receives information that allows him to correctly perceive and evaluate himself. The group gives a person self-confidence, supplies him with a system of positive emotions necessary for his development.

negative

The goals of the group are achieved by infringing on the interests of its individual members to the detriment of the interests of the whole society, i.e., there is a group egoism

The impact that the group has on typically gifted creatives: their original ideas were rejected by the majority because they were incomprehensible, and extraordinary personalities themselves were held back, suppressed in their development, persecuted

Sometimes a person goes into an internal conflict and behaves conformally (lat. conformis - similar), that is, consciously disagreeing with other people, nevertheless agrees with them, based on some considerations

Thus, despite the fact that real society is made up of people, separate individuals, social groups are the true subjects of social relations.

Social (stratification) structure - stratification and hierarchical organization of various strata of society, as well as a set of institutions and the relationship between them The term "stratification" originates from the Latin word stratum - layers, layer. Strata are large groups of people who differ in their position in the social structure of society.

In sociology, 4 main types of social stratification are known - slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies, and the last type - open ones.

In modern society, three stratification levels can be distinguished: the highest, the middle and the lowest. In economically developed countries, the 2nd level is predominant, giving the society a certain stability. In turn, within each level there is also a hierarchically ordered set of different social strata. A person who occupies a certain place in this structure has the opportunity to move from one level to another, while raising or lowering his social status, or from one group located at any level to another located at the same level. This transition is called social mobility.

Social mobility is the movement of individuals or social groups from one position in the hierarchy of social stratification to another.

1) mobility caused by the voluntary movement of individuals within the social hierarchy of society, and mobility dictated by the structural changes taking place in society. An example of the latter is the social mobility brought about by the process of industrialization: one of the consequences of the industrialization process has been an increase in the number of people in working professions and a decrease in the number of people employed in agricultural production.

2) mobility is intergenerational and intragenerational. Intergenerational mobility refers to the movement of children to a higher or lower rung compared to their parents. Within the framework of intragenerational mobility, the same individual changes his social position several times throughout his life.

3) individual and group mobility. They say about individual mobility when movements within society occur in one person independently of others. With group mobility, movements occur collectively (for example, after a bourgeois revolution, the feudal class cedes its dominant positions to the bourgeois class).

The reasons that allow a person to move from one social group to another are called factors of social mobility:

EDUCATION. It played a decisive role in the process of social mobility in some ancient states. In particular, in China, only a person who passed a special exam could apply for a public post.

SOCIAL STATUS OF THE FAMILY to which the person belongs. Many families in various ways - from marriages to support in business area- help promote their members to higher strata.

PUBLIC ORGANIZATION SYSTEM: in open society in contrast to a closed society, there are no formal restrictions on mobility and almost no informal ones. In a closed society, mobility is limited both quantitatively and qualitatively.

CHANGES OCCURING IN THE TECHNOLOGY OF PUBLIC PRODUCTION: they lead to the emergence of new professions that require high qualifications and considerable training. These professions are better paid and more prestigious.

SOCIAL SHOCKS, n\r, warriors and revolutions, leading, as a rule, to a change in the elite of society.

Movement between strata is carried out through special channels ("elevators"), the most important of which are such social institutions as the army, family, school, church, property.

The ARMY functions as a conduit for vertical mobility in both wartime and peacetime. However, during periods of war, the process of “rise up” is faster: large losses among the command staff lead to the filling of vacancies by people of lower ranks, who have distinguished themselves thanks to their talent and courage.

CHURCH. As a result of the ban on marriage for the Catholic clergy, the transfer of church positions by inheritance was excluded, and after the death of the clergy, their positions were filled with new people. Significant opportunities for progress from the bottom up also appeared during the periods of the formation of new religions.

SCHOOLS. Getting an education in the most prestigious schools and universities automatically provides a person with belonging to a certain stratum and a fairly high social status.

FAMILY becomes a channel of vertical mobility when people of different social status get married. So, in the late XIX - early XX century. in R., the marriage of impoverished but titled brides with representatives of the wealthy but humble merchant class was quite common. As a result of such a marriage, both partners moved up the social ladder, getting what each of them wanted. But such a marriage can be useful only if the individual from a lower stratum is prepared to quickly assimilate new patterns of behavior and lifestyle for him. If he cannot quickly assimilate new cultural standards, then such a marriage will not give anything, since representatives of the highest status stratum will not consider the individual

Finally, the fastest channel of vertical mobility is PROPERTY, usually in the form of money - one of the easiest and most effective ways to move up.

Social mobility sometimes leads to the fact that some people find themselves, as it were, at the junction of certain social groups, while experiencing serious psychological difficulties. Their intermediate position is largely determined by the inability or unwillingness for any reason to adapt to one of the interacting social groups. This phenomenon of finding a person, as it were, between two cultures, associated with his movement in social space, is called marginality. A marginal is an individual who has lost his former social status, deprived of the opportunity to engage in his usual business and, moreover, who is unable to adapt to the new socio-cultural environment of the stratum in which he formally exists. The individual value system of such people is so stable that it cannot be replaced by new norms, principles, and rules. Their behavior is characterized by extremes: they are either excessively passive or very aggressive, easily step over moral standards and are capable of unpredictable actions.

Qualitative changes taking place in the economic basis of modern Russian society have led to serious changes in its social structure. The social hierarchy that is currently being formed is distinguished by inconsistency, instability and a tendency to significant changes. The highest stratum (elite) today can be attributed to representatives of the state apparatus, as well as owners of big capital, including their top - financial oligarchs. The middle class in modern Russia includes representatives of the class of entrepreneurs, as well as knowledge workers, highly qualified managers (managers). Finally, the lowest stratum is made up of workers of various professions employed in medium and low-skilled labor.

It should be noted that the process of social mobility between these levels in Russia is limited, which may become one of the prerequisites for future conflicts in society.

Sociologists distinguish several layers in modern societies. Let us dwell on the variant of the four main strata. It involves the division of society into upper, middle and lower classes. Let's consider each of them in more detail.

Upper class – elite society: presidents, prime ministers and other political leaders; big businessmen, the most influential representatives of the creative intelligentsia. Elite (fr. The best, selective) - a group of persons exercising power in society; the best representatives of society or part of it.

Middle class -wealthy sections of society; scientists, writers, artists, doctors, lawyers, teachers, medium and small businessmen, highly skilled workers, etc.

Working class -skilled workers factories, plants, construction firms, agricultural enterprises, services, etc. with consistent and reliable performance.

lower class -unskilled workers, as well as the unemployed, the poor, people with an income on the verge of or below the poverty line; vagabonds, beggars, criminals, etc.

Features of the stratification of Russian society

Within the framework of the structure of society, four main layers can be distinguished: upper, middle, base and lower.

Upper layer represented by the owners of large and medium enterprises. The income level of the representatives of this stratum is many times higher than the income level of the representatives of the base and lower strata. With rare exceptions, this level includes young or middle-aged men, who, for the most part, have higher education.

To middle layer managers, entrepreneurs, the most highly skilled workers, the highest intelligentsia, etc. Representatives of this class do not have the capital that ensures their independence, and do not always have the professionalism that is required in modern society (although in general their professional level should be defined as above average). Representatives of this stratum also have a high level of education, although it is somewhat lower than the level of education of the upper stratum. This layer also includes mostly men, usually middle-aged. More than half of the representatives of this stratum are employed in the non-state sector. Belonging to the middle class does not mean a high level of well-being, since about one-seventh of the people belonging to it live at the poverty level.

To base layer belong to people who are mainly engaged in skilled performing work, that is, workers, peasants, service and trade workers, as well as the mass intelligentsia. This stratum is less characterized by a high level of education: only about 25% of its representatives graduated from universities. To a large extent (about 60%), this layer is made up of women.

To bottom layer belong to unskilled workers who do not have special education, who live below the poverty line or even at the poverty level.

social mobility

Social mobility is any transition of an individual or a social object (value), i.e. everything that is created by a person or has been influenced by him, from one social position to another.

Types of social mobility

Social mobility can be of two types: mobility, which is voluntary movement within a social hierarchy, and mobility dictated by changes in the structure of society (eg, industrialization and demographic factors).

In the first case, a person makes efforts to change his position in society. For example, he receives an education that is not traditionally received by people of his position, and thereby raises his position.

An example of the second type of mobility is the changes that occur as the industrial society develops and the post-industrial society develops. With urbanization and industrialization, the importance of professions is increasing, which leads to changes in the requirements for vocational training. As a result, there has been an increase in the volume of the labor force employed in industrial production and management, and a decrease in the number of agricultural workers.

There are two main types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical. Horizontal social mobility, or movement, refers to the transition of a person or a socially significant object from one social group to another, located at the same level. An example of horizontal mobility is the movement of a person from one citizenship to another, from one family to another in case of divorce or remarriage, from one place of work to another while maintaining his professional status. In all these cases, movement can occur without any noticeable change. social position person or social object in the vertical direction.

Vertical social mobility refers to those relationships that arise when an individual or a social object moves from one social stratum to another. Depending on the direction of movement, there are two types of vertical mobility: ascending and descending, i.e. social ascent and social descent.

Updrafts exist in two main forms. First is penetration. individual from one social group to another, occupying a higher position in the social hierarchy. Secondly, it is the creation by people of a new groups which has a higher position in the social structure of society. In this case, penetration into a higher stratum occurs because the new group has a higher position in society.

Downdrafts also have two forms. The first is to fall individual from the higher parent group to which he previously belonged. The second form is manifested in the degradation social group in general, in the lowering of its rank against the background of other groups or the destruction of its social cohesion. In the first case, the fall reminds us of a person who has fallen from the ship, in the second case, the ship itself is immersed in water with all the passengers on board.

Questions and tasks

1. What is social stratification?

2. How are the concepts of "social stratification" and "social inequality" related?

3. social stratification- this is: a) the presence of various spheres in society; b) division of society into social groups; c) support for low-income groups of the population; d) increase in social status.

4. What types of stratification do you know?

5. Describe the main historical types of stratification.

6. What are the criteria for stratification by Western sociology?

7. Describe the main strata of modern societies.

8. What are the features of the social stratification of Russia?

9. What is the social mobility of people?

10. What are the social shifts in modern societies?

11. In the Middle Ages, the son of a peasant did not have the opportunity to receive the same education as the son of a nobleman. That's an example … a) social views; b) social inequality; c) social adaptation; d) social mobility.

12. Rise of A.D. Menshikov, an associate of Peter I, from a batman to a generalissimo - this is an example ... a) social stratification; b) social adaptation; c) social mobility; d) socialization.

13. What is an example of horizontal social mobility? a) promotion up the corporate ladder; b) demoting an officer to a soldier; c) getting a second working specialty; d) demotion.

14. Nearly a third of US presidents come from poor or average families. This example is a manifestation... a) horizontal social mobility; b) vertical social mobility; c) social stratification; d) social adaptation.

TOPIC 30. POWER AND POLITICS

1. The science of politics.

2. Power, its origin and types of power.

3. Political regimes: totalitarianism, authoritarianism, democracy. The political regime of the Russian Federation

Political Science

Word "politics" in Russian has several meanings. First of all, it denotes the political life of society as a whole. In addition, this word has more narrow meanings. In particular, it is used to denote the struggle for power, especially when it can be assumed that with the help of economic motivations they are trying to hide their interest in power (it is not for nothing that they say about some socially significant events: "it's all politics"). And, of course, politics includes government.

The word "politics" is borrowed by Russian and other European languages from Greek language and comes from the word "polis", which means "city". In Ancient Greece, the word "politics" ("politike") was used to refer to various forms of government, as well as to denote government. This word was formed from the word "polis" not by chance, since the main form of statehood in Ancient Greece was independent And consequently, all political relations were reduced either to the management of these cities, or to the relationships between them.

Word "political science", denoting the science that studies politics, on the contrary, is actually a Russian entity; in addition to the word "politics" it also includes the part "logy", which traditionally denotes the field of knowledge (cf. psychology, sociology, biology, etc.). In other countries, the same science is called differently (for example, "political science", "political sociology", "science of politics").

Although scientists have been interested in the political sphere since ancient times, political science as an independent science took shape only at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. This process began in America, where the first political science department appeared, and then the first political science association. At the world level, political science was entrenched in 1948, when the International Association of Political Science appeared.

As historical progress progressed, the concept of politics became more complex, transformed and acquired new shades. Approx until the 17th century, politics was viewed as the public administration of subjects, the purpose of which is to unite citizens and achieve the maximum benefit, both for citizens and for the state as a whole. At the same time, politics was understood as a system of ethical norms that regulate political interaction between society as a whole and its groups, as well as between different groups. From the point of view of the thinkers of that time, these norms also help to establish social harmony and thereby preserve society and the state in its integrity.

Starting around the 18th century, the attention of researchers began to shift to the means of politics. State power is beginning to be seen as a set of political institutions, various kinds of resources (for example, military, material), political and legal values. It was this approach that made possible a clear and justified separation of the legislative, executive and judicial powers, as well as other subjects of political life.

In the same period, the idea of politics as a relationship associated with power is gradually formed: power begins to be seen as a value that certain groups strive to preserve and which other groups strive to possess. This approach made it possible to very clearly separate relations related to the political sphere from all others.

Modern stage in the development of the science of politics, which began in the first half XX century, characterized by the presence of a large number of diverse approaches to this sphere of society. In part, this "abundance" of political concepts is explained by the fact that by the beginning of the last century political science had finally taken shape as an independent science. At the moment, some researchers still consider politics as a set of relations about state power . However, new concepts have also emerged. In particular, currently politics is sometimes viewed as a subsystem of society that performs important tasks from the point of view of society, since it preserves its integrity.

Politics can be defined as relations between large groups of people within society, as well as between societies that are aimed at establishing, maintaining and redistributing power.

Not all social phenomena are directly related to politics, that is, they are political phenomena, but any social phenomenon can be important from the point of view of politics.

For example, in general, regardless of politics, there are such areas as economics, law and culture. However, the political sphere cannot be considered in isolation from these spheres. Can't the economic interests of the state, a separate group within society, or even individual citizens influence their political activity? It is clear that, for example, the desire to "work for oneself", that is, to be an entrepreneur, will make a person vote for parties of the right spectrum, and Voting is already a political act. With regard to law, political life is regulated by a number of legislative acts, the main of which is Constitution. The same applies to culture: traditions turn out to be an important factor that determines both the actions of the subject of politics and their perception "from the outside", their assessment by other people.

On the other hand, politics also affects other areas of life. Power is, among other things, the ability to manage the life of society and build it in the way that the one who possesses this power considers right. Of course, any politician does not have absolute freedom, since he is forced to act according to the rules that were created before him, but his influence can be very significant. For example, such significant changes that have taken place in the legal sphere (for example, the official recognition of private property by the state and, as a result, the creation of legal acts that regulate people's relations regarding property) have also been the result of political changes. And indeed, it would be strange if Russia, indeed, it would be strange if Russia, having declared itself a democratic state, would still remain a country in which there is no private property.

Social (stratification) structure, social differentiation- stratification and hierarchical organization of various strata of society, as well as a set of institutions and relations between them.

The basis of the stratification structure of society is the natural and social inequality of people.

Social inequality- Unequal access to social benefits.

Modern society strives to minimize social inequality, at the same time, natural inequality cannot be eliminated.

In sociology, four main types of social stratification are known:

§ slavery,

§ estates,

§ classes.

The first three systems are considered closed, i.e. transition from one stratum to another is almost impossible or difficult. class system- open, established social mobility.

There are two approaches to the study of society:

1. Stratified: divides society into strata based on lifestyle, income level, social prestige, involvement in power structures.

2. Class: divides society into classes, based on the place in the system of production, attitude to ownership of the means of production, role in the social division of labor.

Since any social structure is a collection of all functioning social communities, taken in their interaction, the following elements can be distinguished in it:

a) ethnic structure (clan, tribe, nationality, nation);

b) demographic structure (groups are distinguished by age and sex);

c) settlement structure (urban residents, rural residents, etc.);

d) class structure (bourgeoisie, proletariat, peasants, etc.);

e) professional and educational structure.

In the most general form, three stratification levels can be distinguished in modern society:

§ higher (large owners, officials, scientific and cultural elite);

§ average (entrepreneurs, highly qualified specialists);

§ lower (low-skilled workers, unemployed).

The basis of modern society is the middle class.

Marginal- this is an individual who has lost his former social status, deprived of the opportunity to engage in his usual business and not adapted to the new stratum within which he exists.

The positive impact of the marginalized on society:

§ outcasts are prone to innovation and change;

§ outcasts enrich the culture into which they introduce elements of their former culture;

§ outcasts at the junction of two cultures create a new culture.

Bad influence:

§ confusion and inability to act effectively in new circumstances;

§ destabilization of society;

§ inability to get used to new roles;

§ loss of old values and inability to accept new values, which leads to a kind of "spiritual vacuum".

Status- this is a certain position in the social structure of a group or society, associated with other positions through a system of rights and obligations.

Social status can be prescribed and acquired.

Prescribed (innate) status a person receives at birth (family ties, gender, age).

Acquired (achieved) status obtained during life (profession).

Mixed combines the features of prescribed and acquired status: something that did not depend on a person (unemployed, a person with disabilities) or maximum achievements in his field (professor, doctor of science, Olympic champion).

Status symbols- Attributes by which you can find out the status of a person. Clothing is one of the most important status symbols.

Functions of clothing as a status symbol:

§ observance of etiquette norms (a strict suit of a top manager);

§ demonstration of belonging to a particular status (police uniform).

social mobility- the movement of individuals or social groups from one position in the hierarchy of social stratification to another, a change in status.

Mobility types:

1) voluntary and forced ;

2) intergenerational (moving children to a higher or lower rung than their parents) and intragenerational (one and the same individual changes his social position several times during his life);

3) individual (movements within society occur in one person independently of others) and group (movements occur collectively, the position of the whole group changes);

4) vertical and horizontal . Vertical mobility - change in status with a change in position in the social hierarchy. Vertical mobility divided into descending and ascending. Horizontal mobility - change in status without a noticeable change in position in the social hierarchy.

Movement between strata is carried out through special channels ("elevators"), the most important of which are such social institutions as the army, family, school, church, property.

Social groups

§ These are groups of people with similar socially significant features that arise in the course of joint activities of people.

Typology of social groups:

By number

§ small, in which direct communication of all members of the group is an indispensable condition for its functioning;

§ medium, in which direct communication is possible, but not necessary;

§ big, in which direct communication of all members of the group is in principle impossible.

2. By the fact of existence:

§ nominal, allocated only by scientists for research purposes;

§ real, existing independently of the researcher, in the interaction of people.

3. By the time of existence:

§ temporary, uniting for short periods of time, not having stable ties between their members, the lack of awareness among members of themselves as members of this group;

§ permanent, characterized by a long existence and stable ties and interactions of their members.

4. By organization:

§ formal, in which there is a formal criterion for membership, and the interaction of group members is determined by regulatory documents;

§ informal, are built on the basis of interpersonal relations of participants, there is no clear criterion for membership.

5. By connections and relationships:

§ primary (all members of the group know each other personally);

§ secondary (not all members of the group know each other).

6.Demographic(distinguished by demographic characteristics - gender, age)

Similar information.

Under the social (stratification) structure is understood the stratification and hierarchical organization of various strata of society, as well as the totality of institutions and the relationship between them. The term "stratification" originates from the Latin word stratum - layers, layer. Strata are large groups of people who differ in their position in the social structure of society.

In sociology, four main types of social stratification are known - slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies, and the last type - open ones.

The second system of social stratification should be recognized as the caste system. A caste is a social group (stratum) in which membership is transferred to a person only by birth. The transition of a person from one caste to another during his lifetime is impossible - for this he needs to be born again. India is a classic example of a caste society. In India, there are four main castes, descended, according to legend, from various parts of the god Brahma:

a) brahmins - priests;
b) kshatriyas - warriors;
c) vaishyas - merchants;
d) Shudras - peasants, artisans, workers.

A special position is occupied by the so-called untouchables, who do not belong to any caste and occupy a lower position.

Finally, another stratification system is the class system. The most complete definition of classes in the scientific literature was given by V. I. Lenin: “Classes are large groups of people that differ in their place in a historically defined system of social production, in their relationship (for the most part fixed and formalized in laws) to the means of production, according to their role in the social organization of labor, and consequently, according to the methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that they have. The class approach is often opposed to the stratification approach, although in fact class division is only a special case of social stratification.

Depending on the historical period in society, the following classes are distinguished as the main ones:

a) slaves and slave owners;
b) feudal lords and feudal dependent peasants;
c) the bourgeoisie and the proletariat;
d) the so-called middle class.

Since any social structure is a collection of all functioning social communities, taken in their interaction, the following elements can be distinguished in it:

a) ethnic structure (clan, tribe, nationality, nation);
b) demographic structure (groups are distinguished by age and sex);
c) settlement structure (urban residents, rural residents, etc.);
d) class structure (bourgeoisie, proletariat, peasants, etc.);
e) professional and educational structure.

In the most general form, three stratification levels can be distinguished in modern society: the highest, the middle and the lowest. In economically developed countries, the second level is predominant, giving the society a certain stability. In turn, within each level there is also a hierarchically ordered set of different social strata. A person who occupies a certain place in this structure has the opportunity to move from one level to another, while raising or lowering his social status, or from one group located at any level to another located at the same level. This transition is called social mobility.

Social mobility sometimes leads to the fact that some people find themselves, as it were, at the junction of certain social groups, while experiencing serious psychological difficulties. Their intermediate position is largely determined by the inability or unwillingness for any reason to adapt to one of the interacting social groups. This phenomenon of finding a person, as it were, between two cultures, associated with his movement in social space, is called marginality. A marginal is an individual who has lost his former social status, deprived of the opportunity to engage in his usual business and, moreover, who is unable to adapt to the new socio-cultural environment of the stratum in which he formally exists. The individual value system of such people is so stable that it cannot be replaced by new norms, principles, and rules. Their behavior is characterized by extremes: they are either excessively passive or very aggressive, easily step over moral standards and are capable of unpredictable actions. Among the marginals there may be ethnomarginals - people who find themselves in a foreign environment as a result of migration; political outcasts - people who are not satisfied with the legal opportunities and legitimate rules of the socio-political struggle: religious outcasts - people who stand outside the confession or do not dare to make a choice between them, etc.

Qualitative changes taking place in the economic basis of modern Russian society have led to serious changes in its social structure. The social hierarchy that is currently being formed is distinguished by inconsistency, instability and a tendency to significant changes. The highest stratum (elite) today can be attributed to representatives of the state apparatus, as well as owners of big capital, including their top - financial oligarchs. The middle class in modern Russia includes representatives of the class of entrepreneurs, as well as knowledge workers, highly qualified managers (managers). Finally, the lowest stratum is made up of workers of various professions employed in medium and low-skilled labor, as well as office workers and public sector workers (teachers and doctors in state and municipal institutions). It should be noted that the process of social mobility between these levels in Russia is limited, which may become one of the prerequisites for future conflicts in society.

In the process of changing the social structure of modern Russian society, the following trends can be distinguished:

1) social polarization, i.e. stratification into rich and poor, deepening social and property differentiation;
2) mass downward social mobility;
3) mass change of residence by knowledge workers (the so-called "brain drain").

People unite in the course of their life activity, and human society is a multitude of different social communities and groups.
A social community is a real-life, empirically fixed set of people, characterized by relative integrity and acting as an independent subject of historical and social action.
Signs of social community
similarity of living conditions.
Generality of needs.
Availability of joint activities.
Formation of own culture.
Social identification of community members, their self-assignment to this community.
Social communities are distinguished by an unusual variety of specific forms and types. They may vary:
- by quantitative composition: from a few individuals to numerous masses;
- by duration of existence: from minutes and hours (for example, train passengers, theater audience) to centuries and millennia (for example, ethnic groups (from gr. ethnos - people, nation);
- according to the degree of connection between individuals: from relatively stable associations to very amorphous, random formations (for example, a queue, a crowd, an audience of listeners, fans of football teams), which are called “quasi-groups” (lat. quasi - supposedly, imaginary), or “social aggregations." They are characterized by the fragility of relationships between contacting people.
Social communities are divided into stable (for example, a nation) and short-term (for example, passengers on a bus).
Types of social communities
Class communities and layers.
Historical forms of community.
Socio-demographic communities.
corporate communities.
Ethnic and territorial communities.
Communities that have developed depending on the interests of individuals.
In general, the whole set of real social communities can be divided into two large subclasses: mass and group (social groups).
Social groups are stable aggregates of people who have different, only their inherent characteristics (social status, interests, value orientations).
The emergence of social groups, firstly, is associated with the social division of labor and specialization of activities, and secondly, is caused by the historical diversity of living conditions, culture, social norms and values.
Collectively, social groups form the social structure of society.
The social structure of a society is the internal structure of a society or a social group, ordered by certain norms for the interaction of parts. The social structure organizes society into a single whole.
As already noted, in addition to the concept of "group", in sociology there is the concept of "quasi-group".
A quasi-group is an unstable informal set of people, united, as a rule, by one or very few types of interaction, having an indefinite structure and a system of values and norms.

There are the following kinds of quasigroup:
- audience - an association of people led by a communicator (for example, a concert or radio audience). Here there is such a type of social connections as the transmission-reception of information directly or with the help of technical means;
- fan group - an association of people based on a fanatical commitment to a sports team, rock band or religious cult;
- crowd - a temporary gathering of people united by some interest or idea.
Main properties of quasigroups:
+ Anonymity
+ Suggestibility
+ Social contagion
+ Unconsciousness

In modern conditions, when a huge amount of work is required to coordinate activities and resources, the importance of organizations is increasing.
An organization is a large association of people acting on the basis of non-personal connections, created to achieve specific goals (hospitals, educational institutions, firms, financial companies, banks, government agencies, etc.). Organizations are, for the most part, "designed" - established for specific purposes, located in buildings or physical spaces specially designed to help achieve those goals.
Groups and organizations directly influence human behavior. This influence can be both positive and negative.

The impact of a small group on a person
positive
Relationships that develop in a group teach a person to comply with existing social norms, form value orientations that are assimilated by a person.
In a group, a person improves his communication skills
From the members of the group, a person receives information that allows him to correctly perceive and evaluate himself. The group gives a person self-confidence, supplies him with a system of positive emotions necessary for his development.
negative
The goals of the group are achieved by infringing on the interests of its individual members to the detriment of the interests of the whole society, i.e., there is a group egoism
The impact that the group usually has on gifted creative individuals: their original ideas were rejected by the majority because they were incomprehensible, and extraordinary individuals themselves were held back, suppressed in their development, persecuted
Sometimes a person goes into an internal conflict and behaves conformally (lat. conformis - similar), that is, consciously disagreeing with other people, nevertheless agrees with them, based on some considerations
Thus, despite the fact that real society is made up of people, separate individuals, social groups are the true subjects of social relations.

Youth is a socio-demographic group identified on the basis of a combination of age characteristics (approximately from 16 to 25 years), social status and certain socio-psychological qualities.

Youth is a period of choosing a profession and one's place in life, developing a worldview and life values, choosing a life partner, creating a family, achieving economic independence and socially responsible behavior.

Youth is a certain phase, stage of the human life cycle and is biologically universal.
Features of the social status of youth
- Transitivity of the position.
- High level of mobility.
- Mastering new social roles (worker, student, citizen, family man) associated with a change in status.
- Active search your place in life.
- Favorable professional and career prospects.

Young people are the most active, mobile and dynamic part of the population, free from stereotypes and prejudices of previous years and possessing the following socio-psychological qualities: mental instability; internal inconsistency; low level of tolerance (from lat. tolerantia - patience); the desire to stand out, to be different from the rest; the existence of a specific youth subculture.

Typical for young people is the association in informal groups, which are characterized by the following features:
- emergence on the basis of spontaneous communication in the specific conditions of the social situation;
- self-organization and independence from official structures;
- obligatory for the participants and different from the typical, accepted in society, models of behavior that are aimed at the realization of vital needs that are not satisfied in ordinary forms (they are aimed at self-affirmation, giving social status, gaining security and prestigious self-esteem);
- relative stability, a certain hierarchy among group members;
- expression of other value orientations or even worldview, stereotypes of behavior that are uncharacteristic of society as a whole;
- attributes that emphasize belonging to a given community.
Youth groups and movements can be classified depending on the characteristics of youth initiatives.
Aggressive amateur performance
It is based on the most primitive ideas about the hierarchy of values based on the cult of persons. Primitivism, visibility of self-affirmation. Popular among teenagers and young people with a minimum level of intellectual and cultural development.
Outrageous (fr. epater - to amaze, surprise) amateur performance
It is based on a challenge to norms, canons, rules, opinions both in everyday, material forms of life - clothing, hair, and in spiritual ones - art, science. “Challenge” aggression on yourself from other people so that you are “noticeable” (punk style, etc.)
Alternative amateur performance
It is based on the development of alternative behavioral patterns that are systemically contradictory to generally accepted models of behavior, which become an end in itself (hippies, Hare Krishnas, etc.)
Social initiative
Aimed at solving specific social problems (environmental movements, movements for the revival and preservation of cultural and historical heritage, etc.)
Political amateur performance
Aimed at changing the political system and the political situation in accordance with the ideas of a particular group

The acceleration of the pace of development of society causes an increase in the role of young people in public life. Involving in social relations, young people modify them and, under the influence of the transformed conditions, improve themselves.

Along with classes, estates and other groups, the social structure of society is also made up of historically established communities, called ethnic ones. Ethnic groups are large groups of people who have a common culture, language, consciousness of the indissolubility of historical destiny. Among ethnic communities, tribes, nationalities and nations are distinguished. A nation is the historically highest form of an ethno-social community of people, characterized by the unity of a territory, economic life, historical path, language, culture, ethnicity, self-consciousness. The unity of the territory should be understood as the compactness of the population of the nation. Representatives of the nation speak and write the same language, understandable (despite the dialects) to all members of the nation. Each nation has its own folklore, customs, traditions, mentality (special stereotypes of mind set), national way of life, etc., i.e. own culture. The unity of the nation is also facilitated by the common historical path traveled by each nation. National self-consciousness is understood as a reflection of the consciousness of a nation in the individual consciousness of its members, expressing the assimilation by the latter of ideas about the place and role of their people in the world, about their historical experience. A person is aware of his national identity, his belonging to a particular nation, understands national interests. Common economic life plays a special role among the characteristics of a nation. On the basis of the development of commodity-money relations, natural isolation and isolation are being destroyed, a single national market is taking shape, economic ties between different parts of the nation. This creates a solid basis for its unity. An important factor in the formation and development of the nation is the state. Nations are formed during the period of the genesis of commodity-money relations, although a number of scientists trace the history of nations from ancient times. They are preceded by tribe and nationality. The main role in the formation of the tribe is played by blood relations, and the nationality is characterized by a common territory. AT modern world there are from 2500 to 5000 ethnic groups, but only a few hundred of them are nations. As part of the modern Russian Federation more than 100 ethnic groups, including about 30 nations. A nation is an ethnic group or a set of ethnic groups living in a single state, rising to a state way of life. And an ethnos is a pre-state or already intra-state community of people. Therefore, a state can be either monoethnic (for example, Japan) or polyethnic (for example, Russia), and an ethnos, in turn, can be either divided between several states (like the Kurds, for example), or consolidated in one state ( like the Yakuts). At the same time, ethnic groups can be both state-forming (created and preserved the tradition of their statehood) and “nationalized” (those who have adopted statehood from other peoples with whom they live in a common state). But in any case, one thing should be singled out and emphasized: an ethnos (nationality, "nationality") is either still a pre-state (a potential subject of state life), or already a subject of state life - its own, original or common with other ethnic groups. And it is precisely by its attitude to state life that, first of all, an ethnos differs from a nation. There are two interrelated trends in the modern world. One is manifested in the economic, cultural and even political rapprochement of nations, the destruction of national barriers, and ultimately leads to integration within supranational structures (for example, the European Community). On the other hand, the desire of a number of peoples to gain national independence and resist the economic, political and cultural expansion of the superpowers remains and even grows. In almost all states, the positions of nationalist parties and movements are strong, and there are many supporters even of the ideas of national exclusiveness. True, societies of mass production and mass consumption, by definition, cannot be individual. The scientific and technological revolution also requires the deepening of cooperation between different states. But even in developed countries (Canada, Spain, Great Britain), the national question remains acute. The national question is understood as the question of the liberation of the oppressed peoples, their self-determination and the overcoming of ethnic inequality. The roots of the national question lie in the uneven socio-economic and political development of different peoples. More developed and powerful states conquered the weak and backward, establishing a system of national oppression in the conquered countries, sometimes expressed in forced ethnic assimilation and even genocide. After the division of Europe, it was the turn of the "third world". The traditional societies of Asia, Africa, America fell under the onslaught of the European industrial civilization and turned into colonial countries. At the same time, the struggle of dependent peoples against national oppression began. By the end of the XX century. it actually ended with the complete collapse of the colonial system and the formation of many independent states on the political map of the world. But the mismatch of ethnic and territorial boundaries, the deterioration economic situation, social contradictions, nationalism and chauvinism elevated to the rank of official policy, the remaining national and religious differences (sometimes quite sharp), the burden of past national grievances are the breeding ground for numerous ethnic conflicts. The degree of their acuteness largely depends on the nature of the demands of the national minority. So the Sikhs in India, the Tamils in Sri Lanka, the Basques in Spain are in favor of creating their own independent states, so the interethnic conflict has turned into a long-term bloody armed confrontation. The nature of the Ulster conflict is the same: the Catholic Irish demand the reunification of Northern Ireland with the main core of the nation. More moderate demands, such as cultural autonomy or the establishment of genuine equality (the Korean minority in Japan), also explain more moderate forms of national confrontation. The collapse of the USSR and the formation of sovereign Russia did not remove the acuteness of the national question in the country. All former autonomous republics of the RSFSR declared their sovereignty and renounced the status of autonomies. In a number of republics (Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Yakutia), nationalist forces headed for secession from Russia. The North Ossetian-Ingush conflict led to a bloody massacre. The Ingush tried to regain the territories taken from them during the Great Patriotic War and not yet returned. To separate the warring parties, the president and the government had to send federal armed forces to the confrontation zone. But the most serious manifestation of the aggravation of interethnic relations on the territory of Russia was and remains the Chechen crisis. Back in 1991, the Republic of Ichkeria (Chechnya) announced its secession from the Russian Federation. Federal authorities did not recognize the self-proclaimed state. but for a long time no measures were taken to normalize the situation. In December 1994, Russian troops entered Chechnya with the aim of "restoring constitutional order." Separatist detachments met with fierce resistance from the federal armed forces. The conflict became protracted and bloody. Chechen fighters committed a number of terrorist acts against civilians in several Russian regions. The government proved unable to resolve the crisis militarily, prompting a wave of protests both in Russia and abroad. The war in Chechnya revealed the weak combat readiness of the Russian army and the unpreparedness of the command of the federal forces to lead military operations in the mountainous regions. The failure of such a strategy made it necessary to resolve the Chechen crisis peacefully. In August 1996, the leadership of the Russian Federation and the separatists agreed on a cessation of hostilities and the withdrawal of federal troops from the rebellious republic. Until 2000, the decision on the political status of Chechnya was postponed. However, after an unsuccessful attempt by Chechen fighters in August 1999 to seize a number of districts of Dagestan, the second Chechen campaign began. During the autumn of 1999 - spring 2000, the federal troops, despite sharp criticism of the actions of the Russian authorities by international human rights organizations (for example, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe suspended the powers of the delegation of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation), managed to establish control over most of the territory of the republic (with the exception of mountainous regions ). Now on the agenda are the tasks of a political settlement: the restoration of the Chechen economy, the creation of new authorities (in accordance with the Constitution and laws of the Russian Federation), the holding of free and democratic elections, the real integration of Chechnya into the Federation. The national question is also quite acute in the countries of the so-called near abroad. Remaining on the territory of the former Soviet republics, and now independent states, the Russian-speaking population found itself in the position of a national minority. In the Baltic states (especially in Latvia and Estonia), discriminatory laws on citizenship and the state language are adopted, directed against the non-indigenous population. For a long time, the Russian authorities did not take adequate measures to protect our compatriots. A big problem is the numerous Russian refugees from Central Asia, Transcaucasia, Kazakhstan, who returned to their homeland from areas of military conflicts and national intolerance. When solving interethnic conflicts, it is necessary to observe the humanistic principles of policy in the field of national relations: 1) renunciation of violence and coercion; 2) search for consent based on the consensus of all participants; 3) recognition of human rights and freedoms as the most important value; 4) readiness for a peaceful settlement of disputed problems.

Interethnic (interethnic) relations - relations between ethnic groups (peoples), covering all spheres of public life.
Levels of interethnic relations: 1) interaction of peoples in various spheres of public life; 2) interpersonal relationships people of different ethnicity.

In the modern world, there is an economic, cultural and even political rapprochement (integration) of nations (EU - European Union).
The European Union was formed in 1993 in accordance with the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 on the basis of the European Community, which united 12 countries: Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, France.

In June 2004, the European Constitution was adopted. It caused the disapproval of the Vatican because of the refusal to mention the "Christian roots" of European civilization. In addition, Spain and Poland tried to revise the procedure for decision-making in the EU (instead of the current one, which takes into account the "share" of the member countries' economies, to move to a procedure in which the number of votes from each country would be proportional to its population). However, with the coming to power of the Socialist government in Spain, this country abandoned its intentions. The new constitution was signed on October 29, 2004 in Rome. In order for it to enter into force, it must be ratified by the parliaments of all member countries. In some countries, approval was supposed to be obtained through popular referenda. In 2005, referendums in France and the Netherlands rejected the Constitution. In 2009, Ireland and Poland finally supported the Constitution (with some reservations - a ban on abortion).

Another way of interethnic integration was carried out in the United States (the "melting pot" strategy).
"Melting pot" (melting pot) - the concept according to which the United States is a kind of "melting pot" (crucible) that turns representatives of various ethnic groups into just Americans.
Thanks to the constant influx of emigrants, the population of the USA from 1871 to 1913 increased from 39.8 million to 96.5 million people.
Israel Zangwill (1908):
"America ... is a huge melting pot in which all European nations are melted down and transformed."
This metaphor became famous after the play of the same name by the English playwright and writer Israel Zangwill debuted in New York in 1908 with great success, telling about the life of a Jewish family that, fleeing the pogroms, left Russia and found refuge in America.
Ethnic mixing - mixing of different ethnic groups and the emergence of a new ethnic group (Latin America).
Assimilation (from Latin assimilatio - merging, likening, assimilation) - (in ethnography) the merging of one people with another with the loss of one of them of their language, culture, national identity. A distinction is made between natural assimilation arising from the contact of ethnically heterogeneous groups of the population, mixed marriages, etc., and forced assimilation, which is characteristic of countries where nationalities are unequal.
During acculturation, one people learns the norms of another people, but retains its ethnic identity.
Acculturation (lat. accumulare - accumulate + cultura - cultivation) - mutual assimilation and adaptation of various cultures of peoples and individual phenomena of these cultures, in most cases with the dominance of the culture of the people, socially more highly developed.

On the other hand, the desire of peoples to gain national independence (differentiation) and resist the expansion of superpowers is growing.
Multiculturalism is a policy aimed at the development and preservation of cultural differences in a single country and in the world as a whole, and the theory or ideology justifying such a policy.
Multiculturalism is opposed to the concept of a "melting pot", where all cultures are supposed to merge into one.
Nationalism is the ideology, politics, psychology and social practice of separating and opposing one nation to another, propaganda of the national exclusivity of a separate nation.
Types of nationalism: 1) ethnic. 2) sovereign-state, 3) domestic.
Chauvinism - on behalf of N. Chauvin, a soldier, an admirer of the aggressive policy of Napoleon - is an extreme, aggressive form of nationalism.
Discrimination (from Latin discriminatio - distinction) - derogation (actually or legally) of the rights of any group of citizens based on their nationality, race, gender, religion, etc. In the field of international relations - granting citizens and organizations of any state fewer rights and privileges than citizens and organizations of other states.
Segregation (from the late Latin segregatio - separation) is a policy of forced separation of any group of the population on a racial or ethnic basis, one of the forms of racial discrimination.
Apartheid (apartheid) (in Afrikaans apartheid - separate living) is an extreme form of racial discrimination. means deprivation certain groups population, depending on their race, political, socio-economic and civil rights, up to territorial isolation. Modern international law considers apartheid a crime against humanity.
Genocide (from Greek genos - clan, tribe and Latin caedo - I kill) is one of the gravest crimes against humanity, the extermination of certain groups of the population on racial, national, ethnic or religious grounds, as well as the deliberate creation of living conditions designed for full or partial physical extermination of these groups, as well as measures to prevent childbearing in their environment (biological genocide). Such crimes were committed on a mass scale by the Nazis during the 2nd World War, especially against the Slavic and Jewish population.
In Nazi Germany, about 6 million Jews were destroyed in the death camps (Treblinka, Auschwitz). This tragedy is called the Greek word "holocaust" (all destruction through burning).
The Holocaust (holocaust) (English holocaust - from the Greek holokaustos - burned entirely) - the death of a significant part of the Jewish population of Europe (over 6 million people, over 60%) during the systematic persecution and destruction of it by the Nazis and their accomplices in Germany and in the territories it occupied in 1933-45.
Separatism (French separatisme from Latin separatus - separate) - the desire for separation, isolation; movement for the separation of part of the state and the creation of a new state entity (Sikhs, Basques, Tamils) or for granting autonomy to part of the country.
Irredentism (from Italian irredento - unliberated) - 1) the idea of reunification with the main core of the nation (the Irish in Ulster); 2) political and social movement in Italy in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. for the accession to Italy of the border lands of Austria-Hungary with the Italian population - Trieste, Trentino, etc.

Interethnic conflicts (in the narrow sense) occur between states or within a confederation, which is made up of a number of politically independent countries inhabited by different ethnic groups.
Interethnic conflicts arise within the state.
Interethnic conflict (in the broadest sense) is any competition (rivalry) between groups, from confrontation for the possession of limited resources to social competition, in all cases where the opposing side is defined in terms of the ethnicity of its members.

Causes of interethnic conflicts:

1) economic reasons - the struggle of ethnic groups for the possession of property, material resources(land, bowels);
2) social causes - the requirements of civil equality, equality before the law, in education, in wages, equality in employment, especially for prestigious places in government;
3) cultural and linguistic reasons - the requirements for the preservation or revival, development of the native language, which unites the ethnos into a single whole.
4) Huntington's concept of "clash of civilizations" explains modern conflicts by confessional, religious differences.
5) Historical past relationships of peoples.
6) Ethnodemographic - a rapid change in the ratio of the number of peoples in contact due to migration and differences in the level of natural population growth.

Types of ethnic conflicts:

1) conflicts of stereotypes (ethnic groups do not clearly understand the reasons for the contradictions, but in relation to the opponent they create a negative image of an “undesirable neighbor”, the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict);
2) conflict of ideas: putting forward certain claims, substantiating the “historical right” to statehood, to territory (Estonia, Lithuania, Tatarstan, at one time the idea of the Ural Republic);
3) conflict of actions: rallies, demonstrations, pickets, institutional decision-making, open clashes.

Resolution methods:

1) cut off the most radical elements or groups and support forces more inclined to compromise; it is important to exclude any factors capable of consolidating the conflicting side (the threat of the use of force, for example);
2) the use of a wide range of sanctions - from symbolic to military ones. It should be borne in mind that sanctions can work for extremist forces, intensification and exacerbation of the conflict. Armed intervention is admissible only in one case: if in the course of the conflict, which has taken the form of armed clashes, mass violations of human rights take place;
3) a break in the conflict, as a result, the emotional background of the conflict changes, the intensity of passions decreases, the consolidation of forces in society weakens;
4) division of the global goal into a number of sequential tasks that are solved sequentially from simple to complex;
5) conflict prevention - the sum of efforts aimed at preventing events leading to conflicts.

National policy refers to the theoretical and actual practical problems of our time. This is a complex phenomenon that covers all spheres of society. It also has relative independence as a system of measures taken by the state aimed at taking into account and realizing national interests. The national policy includes the strategic tasks of the life of the state and ensures the realization of the interests of the entire nation. Domestic politics state in relation to ethnic communities and interethnic relations is usually called ethnic politics, or policies towards ethnic minorities. National politics- this is also a purposeful activity for the regulation of ethno-political processes, containing in its basis the goal, principles, main directions, a system of measures for their implementation. The main task of the state national policy is to harmonize the interests of all peoples living in the country, providing a legal and material basis for their development on the principles of voluntary, equal and mutually beneficial cooperation. Accounting for ethno-national characteristics in the life of society should be carried out within the boundaries of respect for human rights. AT different time and in different countries, national policy can change its character from national terror (pogroms, ethnic cleansing, etc.), artificial assimilation (the policy and practice of forcibly converting people of one socio-cultural, ethno-national, confessional and other affiliation to another (relevant) affiliation ) until the provision of full cultural and partially political autonomy to various peoples within the framework of a single state. The national policy in the Russian Federation is a system of measures aimed at updating and further evolutionary development of the national life of all the peoples of Russia within the framework of a federal state, as well as at creating equal relations between the peoples of the country, the formation of democratic mechanisms for resolving national and interethnic problems. The documents defining the national policy in our country are the Constitution of the Russian Federation, as well as adopted in 1996 "The concept of the national policy of the Russian Federation". After the collapse of the USSR, a new stage began in the development of our state based on the traditions of Russian statehood, the principles of federalism and civil society. For our multinational country, a well-thought-out democratic national politics which includes the following areas: - development of federative relations that ensure a harmonious combination of the independence of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and the integrity of the Russian state; - development of national cultures and languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation, strengthening of the spiritual community of Russians; - ensuring political and legal protection of small peoples and national minorities; - achieving and maintaining stability, lasting interethnic peace and harmony in the North Caucasus; - support for compatriots living in the member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States, as well as in the Latvian, Lithuanian and Estonian republics, promoting the development of their ties with Russia. Basic principles of national policy in Russia Equality of rights and freedoms of a person and a citizen, regardless of his gender, race, nationality, language, attitude to religion, membership in social groups and public associations. Prohibition of any form of restriction of the rights of citizens on the grounds of social, racial, national, linguistic or religious affiliation. Preservation of the integrity and inviolability of the territory of the Russian Federation. Equal rights for all subjects of the Russian Federation in relations with federal government bodies. Guaranteeing the rights of indigenous peoples in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, generally recognized principles and norms of international law and international treaties of the Russian Federation. The right of every citizen to determine and indicate his nationality without any coercion. Assistance in the development of national cultures and languages of the peoples of Russia. Timely and peaceful resolution of contradictions and conflicts. Prohibition of activities aimed at undermining the security of the state, inciting social, racial, national and religious discord, hatred or enmity. Protection of the rights and interests of citizens of the Russian Federation outside its borders, support for compatriots living in foreign countries in the preservation and development of their native language, culture and national traditions, in strengthening their ties with the Motherland in accordance with international law.

Social heterogeneity of society, differences in income, property, power, prestige, horizontal and vertical mobility naturally lead to an aggravation of social contradictions and conflicts. Conflicts are a special type social interaction, the subjects of which are communities, organizations and individuals with real or supposedly incompatible goals.

There are various theories regarding the causes and essence of conflicts that arise in society.

Herbert Spencer, the founder of the organic school, is considered to be the founder of the conflictological tradition in sociology. Spencer believed that conflicts in society are a manifestation of the process of natural selection and the general struggle for survival. Competition and inequality lead to the selection of the strongest, dooming the weaker ones to death. Spencer considered it possible to avoid the revolutionary way of resolving conflicts and preferred the evolutionary development of mankind.

Unlike Spencer, sociologists of Marxist orientation were of the opinion that conflict is just a temporary state that periodically arises in society, and that this state can be overcome as a result of a revolutionary change in the type of social order. They argued that different socio-economic formations correspond to different conflict types. class structure society; between the exploiting and exploited classes there is a struggle for the redistribution of ownership of the means of production. This class struggle, taking place in capitalist society between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, inevitably leads to the dictatorship of the proletariat, which represents a transition to a classless (i.e., socially conflict-free) society.

The German sociologist Georg Simmel paid much attention to the theory of social conflict in his studies. He proved the thesis that conflicts in society are inevitable, since they are predetermined by: 1) the biological nature of man; 2) the social structure of society, which is characterized by the processes of association (association) and dissociation (separation), domination and subordination. Simmel believed that frequent and not too long conflicts are even useful, since they help different social groups and individual members of society to get rid of hostility towards each other.

Modern Western sociologists explain the nature of social conflicts by socio-psychological factors. They believe that the inherent inequality of society generates a stable psychological dissatisfaction of its members. This sensual-emotional anxiety and irritability periodically develops into conflict clashes between the subjects of social relations.

The conflict behavior of the parties itself consists of oppositely directed actions of opponents. All of them can be divided into main and auxiliary. The main sociologists include those that are directly aimed at the subject of the conflict. Auxiliary actions ensure the implementation of the main ones. Also, all conflict actions are divided into offensive and defensive. Offensive consists in attacking the enemy, seizing his property, etc. Defensive - in holding the disputed object behind him or in protecting it from destruction. Such an option as a retreat, surrender of positions, refusal to protect one's interests is also possible.

If none of the parties tries to make concessions and evade the conflict, then the latter goes into an acute stage. It can end immediately after the exchange of conflict actions, but it can also last for quite a long time, changing its form (war, truce, war again, etc.) and growing. The escalation of a conflict is called escalation. The escalation of the conflict, as a rule, is accompanied by an increase in the number of its participants.

The end of a conflict does not always mean its resolution. The resolution of the conflict is the decision of its participants to end the confrontation. The conflict may end with the reconciliation of the parties, the victory of one of them, the gradual fading or development into another conflict.

Sociologists consider the achievement of consensus to be the most optimal solution to the conflict. Consensus is the agreement of a significant majority of representatives of a certain community regarding important aspects of its functioning, expressed in assessments and actions. Consensus does not mean unanimity, since it is practically impossible to achieve a complete concurrence of the positions of the parties, and it is not necessary. The main thing is that none of the parties should express direct objections; also, when resolving a conflict, a neutral position of the parties, abstention from voting, etc. is allowed.

Depending on the basis on which the typology is carried out, sociologists distinguish the following types of conflicts:
a) by duration: long-term, short-term, one-time, protracted and recurring;
b) according to the source of occurrence: objective, subjective and false;
c) in form: internal and external;
d) by the nature of development: intentional and spontaneous;
e) by volume: global, local, regional, group and personal;
f) according to the means used: violent and non-violent;
g) by influence on the course of development of society: progressive and regressive;
h) by spheres of public life: economic (or industrial), political, ethnic, family and household.
i) by participants: Intrapersonal conflict manifests itself within the individual and is often a conflict of goals or views in nature. Its intensity increases with the increase in the number of solutions, with the achievement of a balance between the positive and negative outcome of the conflict and the perception of the importance of its source.
Two or more individuals are involved in interpersonal conflict if they perceive themselves to be in opposition to each other regarding the goals, dispositions, values, or behavior of each of them. This is the most common type of conflict.
Intragroup conflict - as a rule, this is a clash between parts or members of a group that affects group dynamics and the results of the work of the entire group. It can arise as a result of a change in the balance of power in the group: a change in leadership, the emergence of an informal leader, the development of grouping, etc.
Intergroup conflict is a confrontation or clash between two or more groups in an organization. May have a professional-production or emotional basis. Has an intense character. The development of intergroup conflict leads to intraorganizational conflict.
Intra-organizational conflict arises most often on the basis of the design of individual works, the formation of the organization as a whole, and also as a result of the formal distribution of power. It can be vertical (conflict between levels of the organization), horizontal (between parts of the organization equal in status), linear-functional (between line management and specialists) and role-based.
(conflict with the external environment)
In the prevention and timely resolution of social conflicts, the social policy pursued by the state plays an important role. Its essence is the regulation of the socio-economic conditions of society and concern for the well-being of all its citizens.

The sociology of conflict as a special part of sociological science arose relatively recently, but was quickly in demand by modern society. Today, conflictologists participate in negotiation processes in "hot spots", help to resolve group and interpersonal conflicts. The relevance and importance of their work is constantly growing due to the growth of social tension and the social polarization of Russian society.

In the course of their life, people constantly interact with each other. The diverse forms of interaction between individuals, as well as the connections that arise between different social groups (or within them), are usually called social relations. A significant part of social relations is characterized by conflicting interests of their participants. The result of such contradictions are emerging between members of society social conflicts. One of the ways to harmonize the interests of people and smooth out the conflicts that arise between them and their associations is normative regulation, that is, regulation of the behavior of individuals with the help of certain norms.

The word "norm" comes from lat. norma, which means "rule, pattern, standard". The norm indicates the boundaries within which an object retains its essence, remains itself. Norms can be different - natural, technical, social. Actions, deeds of people and social groups that are subjects of social relations, regulate social norms.

Social norms mean general rules and patterns of behavior of people in society, due to social relations and resulting from the conscious activity of people. Social norms are formed historically, naturally. In the process of their formation, being refracted through the public consciousness, they are then fixed and reproduced in society needs relationships and acts. To some extent, social norms are binding on those to whom they are addressed, they have a certain procedural form of implementation and mechanisms for their implementation.

Exist various classifications social norms. The most important is the division of social norms depending on the characteristics of their emergence and implementation. On this basis, five varieties of social norms are distinguished: moral norms, norms of customs, corporate norms, religious norms and legal norms.

Moral norms are rules of conduct that are derived from people's ideas about good and evil, about justice and injustice, about good and bad. The implementation of these norms is ensured by public opinion and the internal conviction of people.

The norms of customs are the rules of behavior that have become a habit as a result of their repeated repetition. The implementation of customary norms is ensured by the force of habit. The customs of moral content are called mores.

A variety of customs are traditions that express the desire of people to preserve certain ideas, values, useful forms of behavior. Another kind of customs are rituals that regulate the behavior of people in everyday, family and religious spheres.

Corporate norms are the rules of conduct established by public organizations. Their implementation is ensured by the internal conviction of the members of these organizations, as well as by the public associations themselves.

Religious norms are understood as the rules of conduct contained in various sacred books or established by the church. The implementation of this type of social norms is provided by the internal beliefs of people and the activities of the church.

Legal norms are rules of conduct established or sanctioned by the state, and sometimes directly by the people, the implementation of which is ensured by the authority and coercive power of the state.

Different types of social norms did not appear simultaneously, but one after another, as needed.

With the development of society, they became more and more complicated.
Scientists suggest that the first type of social norms that arose in primitive society were rituals. A ritual is a rule of conduct in which the most important thing is a strictly predetermined form of its execution. The content of the ritual itself is not so important - it is its form that matters most. Rituals accompanied many events in the life of primitive people. We know about the existence of rituals of seeing off fellow tribesmen for hunting, taking office as a leader, presenting gifts to leaders, etc. Somewhat later, rituals began to be distinguished in ritual actions. Rites were rules of conduct, consisting in the performance of certain symbolic actions. Unlike rituals, they pursued certain ideological (educational) goals and had a deeper impact on the human psyche.

The next social norms in time, which were an indicator of a new, higher stage in the development of mankind, were customs. Customs regulated almost all aspects of the life of primitive society.

Another type of social norms that arose in the era of primitiveness were religious norms. Primitive man, aware of his weakness before the forces of nature, attributed to the latter a divine power. Initially, the object of religious admiration was a real-life object - a fetish. Then a person began to worship any animal or plant - a totem, seeing in the latter his ancestor and protector. Then totemism was replaced by animism (from the Latin "anima" - soul), i.e., belief in spirits, the soul, or the universal spirituality of nature. Many scientists believe that it was animism that became the basis for the emergence of modern religions: over time, among supernatural beings, people identified several special ones - gods. So the first polytheistic (pagan), and then monotheistic religions appeared.
In parallel with the emergence of norms of customs and religion, moral norms were also formed in primitive society. It is impossible to determine the time of their occurrence. We can only say that morality appears along with human society and is one of the most important social regulators.
During the emergence of the state, the first rules of law appear.
Finally, corporate norms emerge most recently.
All social norms are common features. They are rules of conduct general, i.e., designed for multiple use, and operate continuously in time in relation to a personally indefinite circle of persons. In addition, social norms are characterized by such features as procedural and sanctioned. The procedural nature of social norms means the presence of a detailed regulated order (procedure) for their implementation. Sanctioning reflects the fact that each of the types of social norms has a certain mechanism for the implementation of their prescriptions.

Social norms define the boundaries of acceptable behavior of people in relation to the specific conditions of their life. As already mentioned above, compliance with these norms is usually ensured by the internal beliefs of people or by applying social rewards and social punishments to them in the form of so-called social sanctions.

Social sanction is usually understood as the reaction of society or a social group to the behavior of an individual in a socially significant situation. According to their content, sanctions can be positive (encouraging) and negative (punishing). There are also formal sanctions (coming from official organizations) and informal (coming from informal organizations). Social sanctions play a key role in the system of social control, rewarding members of society for the implementation of social norms or punishing for deviation from the latter, i.e. for deviance.

Deviant (deviant) is such behavior that does not meet the requirements of social norms.
The opposite of deviant behavior is conformist behavior (from Latin conformis - similar, similar). Conformist is called social behavior that corresponds to the norms and values accepted in society. Ultimately, the main task regulation and social control is the reproduction in society of precisely the conformist type of behavior.

The efforts of society aimed at preventing deviant behavior, punishing and correcting deviants, are defined by the concept of "social control".
Social control is a mechanism for regulating relations between the individual and society in order to strengthen order and stability in society.
In the broad sense of the word, social control can be defined as the totality of all types of control that exist in society, moral, state control, etc., in the narrow sense, social control is the control of public opinion, publicity of the results and assessments of people's activities and behavior.
Social control includes two main elements: social norms and sanctions.
Sanctions are any reaction on the part of others to the behavior of a person or group.
There is the following classification of sanctions.
Types of sanctions
Formal:
- negative - punishment for breaking the law or violating the administrative order: fines, imprisonment, etc.
- positive - encouragement of a person's activity or act by official organizations: awards, certificates of professional, academic success, etc.
Informal:
- negative - condemnation of a person for an act by society: offensive tone, swearing or reprimand, defiant ignoring of a person, etc.
- positive - gratitude and approval of unofficial persons - friends, acquaintances, colleagues: praise, an approving smile, etc., etc.
Sociologists distinguish two main forms of social control.
social control
Internal (self-control)
A form of social control in which an individual independently regulates his behavior, coordinating it with generally accepted norms
External
A set of institutions and mechanisms that guarantee compliance with generally accepted norms of behavior and laws

Informal (intra-group) - based on approval or condemnation from a group of relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, as well as from public opinion, which is expressed through traditions and customs or through the media
Formal (institutional) - based on the support of existing social institutions (army, court, education, etc.)
In the process of socialization, norms are assimilated so firmly that people, violating them, experience a feeling of awkwardness or guilt, pangs of conscience. Conscience is a manifestation of internal control.
Generally accepted norms, being rational prescriptions, remain in the sphere of consciousness, below which is the sphere of the subconscious, or unconscious, consisting of elemental impulses. Self-control means containment of the natural elements, it is based on volitional effort.
In a traditional society, social control rested on unwritten rules; in modern society, it is based on written norms: instructions, decrees, decrees, laws. Social control has gained institutional support. Formal control is carried out by such institutions of modern society as the court, education, the army, production, the media, political parties, and the government. The school controls thanks to examination marks, the government - thanks to the system of taxation and social assistance to the population, the state - thanks to the police, the secret service, state channels of radio, television, and the press.
In the Russian Federation, special bodies have been created to exercise social control. These include the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation, the Federal Security Service, various bodies financial control etc. Deputies of various levels are also vested with control functions. In addition to state control bodies, various public organizations, for example, in the field of consumer protection, in the control of labor relations, the state of environment etc.
Detailed (petty) control, in which the leader intervenes in every action, corrects, corrects, etc., is called supervision. Supervision is carried out not only at the micro, but also at the macro level of society. The state becomes its subject, and it turns into a specialized public institution.
The more self-control developed among members of a society, the less that society has to resort to external control. And vice versa, the less self-control people have, the more often the institutions of social control come into action, in particular the army, the court, the state. The weaker the self-control, the tighter the external control must be. However, strict external control, petty guardianship of citizens hinder the development of self-consciousness and expression of will, muffle internal volitional efforts.
Methods of social control

Insulation
Establishment of impenetrable partitions between the deviant and the rest of society without any attempts to correct or re-educate him
Isolation
Limiting the deviant's contacts with other people, but not his complete isolation from society; this approach allows for the correction of deviants and their return to society when they are ready to again fulfill the generally accepted norms
Rehabilitation
The process by which deviants can prepare for a return to normal life and the correct performance of their social roles in society

In the history of social thought, the problem of freedom has always been associated with the search for different meanings. Most often, it boiled down to the question of whether a person has free will or all his actions are due to external necessity (predestination, God's providence, fate, fate, etc.).
If everything is absolutely necessary, if there are practically no accidents, new opportunities, then a person turns into an automaton, a robot acting according to a given program.
Freedom is the ability to do what you want. Complete arbitrariness in relation to other people, the impossibility of establishing any stable social ties
The core of freedom is a choice, which is always associated with the intellectual and emotional-volitional tension of a person (the burden of choice). Society, by its norms and limitations, determines the range of choice. This range also depends on the conditions for the realization of freedom, the established forms of social activity, the level of development of society and the place of a person in the social system.
Freedom is a specific way of being a person, associated with his ability to choose a decision and perform an act in accordance with his goals, interests, ideals and assessments, based on the awareness of the objective properties and relations of things, the laws of the world around him.
There is freedom where there is choice. But only the freedom of choice gives rise to the responsibility of the individual for the decision made and the actions that are its consequences. Freedom and responsibility are two aspects of human conscious activity. Freedom breeds responsibility, responsibility guides freedom.
Responsibility is a socio-philosophical and sociological concept that characterizes an objective, historically specific type of relationship between an individual, a team, and society from the point of view of the conscious implementation of the mutual requirements placed on them.
Responsibility, accepted by a person as the basis of his personal moral position, acts as the foundation of the internal motivation of his behavior and actions. The regulator of such behavior is conscience.
There are the following types of responsibility:
- historical, political, moral, legal, etc.;
- individual (personal), group, collective.
Social responsibility is expressed in the tendency of a person to behave in accordance with the interests of other people.
As human freedom develops, responsibility increases. But its focus is gradually shifting from the collective ( collective responsibility) on the person himself (individual, personal responsibility).
Only a free and responsible person can fully realize himself in social behavior and thereby reveal his potential to the maximum extent.

The social norms that people follow in their actions give the social world regularity and predictability. But not always and not all actions of individuals correspond to social expectations. People quite often deviate from the rules that they are required to follow.
Deviant (from late Latin deviatio - deviation) (deviating) behavior - social behavior that does not correspond to the existing norm or set of norms accepted by a significant part of people in a group or community.
The main forms of deviant behavior are: drunkenness; addiction; crime; prostitution; suicide; homosexuality.
Some sociologists make a distinction between deviant and delinquent (lat. delinquens - committing a misdemeanor) (literally - criminal) behavior. The latter includes violations of the norms that fall under the category of illegal action. At the same time, it is emphasized that deviant behavior is relative, because it belongs to the moral norms of this group, and delinquent behavior is absolute, since it violates the absolute norm expressed in the legal laws of society.
There are various explanations for the causes of deviant behavior.
biological
People are biologically predisposed to a certain type of behavior. Moreover, the biological predisposition of a person to crime is reflected in his appearance.
Psychological
Deviant behavior is a consequence of psychological qualities, character traits, internal life attitudes, personality orientation, which are partly innate, partly shaped by upbringing and environment. At the same time, the act itself, the violation of the law, can be the result of the psychological state of the deviant.
Sociological
Deviant behavior is caused by the anomic state of society (anomy), i.e. the collapse of the existing system of social values and norms that regulate people's life. According to the Theory of Stigmatization (from Gr. stigma - corner, spot)
Deviation is determined not by behavior or a specific act, but by a group assessment, the application of sanctions by other people against those whom they consider "violators" of established norms.
Distinguish between primary and secondary deviation. With primary deviation, the individual from time to time violates some social norms. However, others do not attach much importance to this, and he himself does not consider himself a deviant. Secondary deviation is characterized by the fact that a person is labeled as a “deviant” and begins to be treated differently from ordinary people.
Deviant behavior can be both collective and individual. Moreover, individual deviation in some cases is transformed into a collective one. The spread of the latter is usually associated with the influence of the criminal subculture, the carriers of which are the declassed strata of society. Categories of the population, more than others predisposed to commit deviant acts, are called risk groups. Such groups, in particular, include certain segments of the youth.
According to experts, the existence of deviant behavior in modern society is inevitable. Therefore, the task of "complete eradication" of deviations is not set today. After all, deviations are not necessarily directed to the worse. Sometimes deviant behavior is positive (for example, national heroes, outstanding athletes, political leaders, industry leaders).
At the same time, measures of social influence on behavioral deviations are needed. And here two main directions are outlined: if in relation to criminal (delinquent) behavior strict prohibitive measures are needed, then such deviations as alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide, mental disorders, etc., require organization different types social assistance - opening crisis centers, homes for the homeless, helplines, etc.

Status is a certain position in the social structure of a group or society, associated with other positions through a system of rights and obligations. The social status is general position individual or social group in society, associated with a certain set of rights and obligations. Social statuses are prescribed and acquired (achieved). The first category includes nationality, place of birth, social origin, etc., the second - profession, education, etc. In any society there is a certain hierarchy of statuses, which is the basis of its stratification. Certain statuses are prestigious, others are vice versa. Prestige is an assessment by society of the social significance of a particular status, enshrined in culture and public opinion. This hierarchy is formed under the influence of two factors: a) the real utility of those social functions that a person performs; b) the system of values characteristic of a given society. If the prestige of any statuses is unreasonably high or, conversely, underestimated, it is usually said that there is a loss of status balance. A society in which there is a similar tendency to lose this balance is unable to ensure its normal functioning. Authority must be distinguished from prestige. Authority is the degree to which society recognizes the dignity of an individual, a particular person. The social status of a person primarily affects her behavior. Knowing the social status of a person, one can easily determine most of the qualities that he possesses, as well as predict the actions that he will carry out. Such expected behavior of a person, associated with the status that he has, is commonly called social role.

A social role is actually a certain pattern of behavior that is recognized as appropriate for people of a given status in a given society.

In fact, the role provides a model showing exactly how an individual should act in a given situation. Roles vary in their degree of formalization: some are very clearly defined, such as in military organizations, others are very vague. A social role can be assigned to a person both formally (for example, in a legislative act), or be informal. Any individual is a reflection of the totality of social relations of his era. Therefore, each person has not one but a whole set of social roles that he plays in society. Their combination is called the role system. Such a variety of social roles can cause an internal conflict of the individual (in the event that some of the social roles contradict each other). Scientists offer various classifications of social roles. Among the latter, as a rule, the so-called basic (basic) social roles are distinguished. These include: a) the role of the worker; b) the role of the owner; c) the role of the consumer; d) the role of a citizen; e) the role of a family member. However, despite the fact that the behavior of an individual is largely determined by the status that it occupies and the roles it plays in society, it (the individual) nevertheless retains its autonomy and has a certain freedom of choice. And although in modern society there is a tendency towards the unification and standardization of the individual, fortunately, its complete leveling does not occur.

The individual has the opportunity to choose from a variety of social statuses and the roles offered to him by society, those that allow him to better realize his plans, to use his abilities as efficiently as possible. On the acceptance by a person of one or another social role influence both social conditions and its biological and personal characteristics (state of health, gender, age, temperament, etc.). Any role prescription outlines only general scheme human behavior, offering to make a choice of ways of its execution by the personality itself. In the process of achieving a certain status and performing an appropriate social role, a so-called role conflict may arise.

A role conflict is a situation in which a person is faced with the need to satisfy the requirements of two or more incompatible roles.

Socialization (from Latin socialis - public) is the process of assimilation and further development individual cultural norms and social experience necessary for successful functioning in society. The process of socialization continues throughout life, since a person during this time masters many social roles. Stages of socialization

Stage	Its content
Elementary	Socialization of the child, mainly in the family
Average	School education
final	Socialization of an adult who is mastering new roles: spouse, parent, grandfather, etc.

Socialization covers all the processes of including an individual in the system of social relations, the formation of his social qualities, i.e. forms the ability to participate in social life. Everything that influences the process of socialization is designated by the concept of “agents of socialization”. These include: national traditions and customs; public policy, mass media; social environment; education; self-education. The expansion and deepening of socialization occurs: - in the field of activity- expansion of its types; orientation in the system of each type of activity, i.e. highlighting the main thing in it, its comprehension, etc. - in the field of communication - enriching the circle of communication, deepening its content, developing communication skills. - in the field of self-awareness- the formation of the image of one's own "I" ("I"-concept) as an active subject of activity, understanding one's social belonging to a social role, etc. Socialization is divided into two types - primary and secondary. Primary socialization concerns the immediate environment of a person and includes, first of all, family and friends, while secondary socialization refers to the indirect, or formal, environment and consists of the impacts of institutions and institutions. The role of primary socialization is great in the early stages of life, and the secondary - in the later stages. Primary socialization is carried out by those who are connected with you by close personal relationships (parents, friends), and secondary - by those who are formally connected with business relations.
Factors of socialization .
Great amount various conditions acting on a person are usually called factors. In fact, not all of them have been identified, and far from all of the known ones have been studied. Quite a lot is known about some factors, little about others, and very little about others. More or less studied conditions or factors of socialization can conditionally be combined into four groups.
1) Megafactors (mega - very large, universal) - space, planet, world, which to some extent through other groups of factors influence the socialization of all inhabitants of the Earth.
2) Macrofactors (macro - large) - a country, ethnic group, society, state, which affect the socialization of all living in certain countries.
3) Mesofactors (meso - medium, intermediate) - the conditions for the socialization of large groups of people, distinguished: by the area and type of settlement in which they live (region, village, city, settlement); by belonging to the audience of certain networks of mass communication (radio, television, etc.); by belonging to certain subcultures.
4) Microfactors . These include factors that directly affect specific people who interact with them - family and home, neighborhood, peer groups, educational organizations, various public, religious, private organizations, microsociety.
Socialization agents (people and institutions responsible for teaching cultural norms and learning social roles): family, peer group, school, and others educational institutions, public organizations, mass media. There are as many agents of socialization as there are groups and social situations in which individuals spend any significant part of their lives.
!!! In a narrow sense, agents of socialization are specific people responsible for teaching other people cultural norms, assisting them in mastering social roles.
Primary socialization agents : parents, relatives, teachers (the closest environment of a person).
Jungle Children (Mowgli, Feral People) ( lat . feralis - wild) - human children who lived without contact with people from an early age and practically did not experience care and love from another person, had no experience social behavior and communication.
Children raised by animals exhibit (within the limits of human physical capabilities) the behavior characteristic of their adoptive parents, for example, fear of a person.
If children had some social behavior skills before isolation from society, the process of their rehabilitation is much easier. Those who lived in animal society for the first 5-6 years of their lives practically cannot master the human language, walk upright, communicate meaningfully with other people, despite the years they later spent in human society, where they received enough care.
Agents of secondary socialization : employees of universities, enterprises, journalists, TV presenters. In this sense, the institutions of socialization are social institutions: 1) primary (family, school, group of peers), 2) secondary (army, production).
Agents of secondary socialization influence in a narrow direction, they perform one or two functions. Primary socialization agents are universal, they perform many different functions: the father plays the role of a livelihood earner, guardian, discipliner, educator, teacher, friend.
Functions of agents and institutions of socialization : 1) teaching cultural norms and patterns of behavior; 2) control over the completeness of the assimilation of these norms and patterns of behavior through encouragement or punishment.
Means, methods, mechanisms of socialization .
Methods of socialization differ in the degree of purposefulness, organization, and methods of control.
Every society, every organization, every social group (small or large) develops in its history a set of positive and negative, formal and informal sanctions - methods of suggestion and persuasion, prescriptions and prohibitions, measures of coercion and pressure, up to the use of physical violence, ways of expressing recognition, honors, awards. With the help of these measures and methods, the behavior of a person and entire groups of people is brought into line with the patterns, norms, and values accepted in a given culture.
!!! Agents + factors = socialization mechanisms.
1) Socio-psychological mechanisms .
Imprinting (imprinting) is the fixation by a person at the receptor and subconscious levels of the features of vital objects affecting him.
Imitation - following an example, a model. In this case, one of the ways of arbitrary and most often involuntary assimilation of social experience by a person.
Identification (identification) is the process of unconscious identification by a person of himself with another person, group, model. Empathy (from Greek . empatheia - empathy) - the ability of a person to parallel experience those emotions that arise in another person in the process of communicating with him. Reflection is an internal dialogue in which a person considers, evaluates, accepts or rejects certain values inherent in various institutions of society, family, peer society, significant persons, etc.
2) Socio-pedagogical mechanisms of socialization br /> The traditional mechanism of socialization (spontaneous) is the assimilation by a person of norms, standards of behavior, attitudes, stereotypes that are characteristic of his family and immediate environment (neighborly, friendly, etc.).
The institutional mechanism of socialization functions in the process of human interaction with the institutions of society and various organizations, as specially created for his socialization.
The stylized mechanism of socialization operates within a certain subculture. Stages of socialization:
Version #1 : The first stage is characteristic of early childhood. At this stage, external conditions for the regulation of social behavior predominate. The second stage of socialization is characterized by the fact that external sanctions are replaced by internal control.
Version #2 : 1) primary socialization or adaptation stage (from birth to adolescence, when the child learns social experience critically, adapts, imitates others); 2) the stage of individualization (a person has a desire to distinguish himself from others, a critical attitude to social norms of behavior is formed); 3) the stage of integration is successful if the person is accepted by the group, society. If the society rejects a person, then one of the following options is possible: a) the preservation of dissimilarity and the emergence of aggressive interactions with people and society; b) changing oneself (“to become like everyone else”); c) external conciliation, adaptation; 4) labor stage (period of maturity, labor activity when a person learns social experience); 5) the post-labor stage (old age, which makes an important contribution to the reproduction of social experience, to the process of passing it on to new generations).
Version #3 People: Erik Erickson (1902 - 1982): life cycle personality includes eight phases (and, accordingly, eight psychosocial crises), each of which has its own specific goal and can end favorably or unfavorably for future development: 1) infancy (the goal is to develop an unconscious sense of “basic trust” in the outside world, failure = > feeling of “basic distrust”, isolation); 2) early childhood (goal - a sense of autonomy and personal value, failure => shame, insecurity and doubt); 3) playing age (goal - a sense of initiative, failure => guilt); 4) school age (goal - a sense of enterprise and efficiency, failure => feeling of inferiority); 5) youth (the goal is a sense of individuality, failure => role and personal uncertainty); 6) youth (the goal is the need and ability for intimate psychological intimacy with another person, failure => isolation and loneliness); 7) adulthood (the goal is creativity and a sense of productivity, usefulness, failure => a sense of stagnation, stagnation); 8) mature age or old age (the goal is a feeling of fullness of life, fulfillment of duty, failure => despair and disappointment).
In what areas is socialization taking place?
The expansion and deepening of socialization occurs in three main areas : 1) activities (expansion of types of socialization, orientation in the system of each type of activity, i.e. highlighting the main thing in it, its comprehension, etc.), 2) communication (enrichment of a person’s social circle, development of communication skills); 3) self-awareness (formation of the image of one's own "I" = I-concept, understanding one's social belonging, social role, self-esteem formation).
I am a concept - a system of a person's ideas about himself.How socialization differs from education
Socialization is the process of assimilation by a person of a certain system of knowledge, norms and values that allow him to function as a full member of society. Education is a process targeted impact on a person, which is designed to help him master the socio-cultural experience of mankind. In a broad sense, education is usually seen as the many-sided influence of society on the individual. In this sense, education is close to socialization. However, these two concepts cannot be considered as synonyms. Socialization occurs in conditions of spontaneous interaction of a person with the social environment. In the course of socialization, a person naturally acquires social experience, models of role behavior based on the norms existing in society.
Education is a process of purposeful influence on a person. In a narrow, special sense, education means a purposefully organized activity for the formation of certain qualities of a person (education of a worldview, moral culture, aesthetic taste).
Education can be considered as a mechanism for managing the process of socialization.

The family is complex social education. A family is a community of people based on a single family-wide activity, bound by the bonds of matrimony and thereby carrying out the reproduction of the population and the continuity of family generations, as well as the socialization of children and the maintenance of the existence of family members. The family is both a social institution and a small group.
social institution called a relatively stable type or form of social practice through which public life, the stability of ties and relations within the framework of the social organization of society is ensured.
A small group in sociology is understood as a small social group in its composition, the members of which are united common activities and are in direct personal communication with each other, which is the basis for the emergence of both emotional relationships and special group values and norms of behavior. How social institution the family satisfies the most important need of people to reproduce the genus, as a small group - plays a huge role in the upbringing and development of the individual, its socialization, is the conductor of those values and norms of behavior that are accepted in society. Depending on the nature of the marriage, the characteristics of parenthood and kinship, the following types of family structures are distinguished: 1) monogamous marriage and polygamy. A monogamous marriage is the marriage of one man to one woman. Polygamy is the marriage of one spouse to several women. Polygamy is of two types: polygyny - the marriage of one man with several women and polyandry - the marriage of one woman with several men; 2) patrilineal and matrilineal families. In patrilineal families, the inheritance of the surname, property and social status is carried out according to the father, and in matrilineal families - according to the mother; 3) patriarchal and matriarchal families. In patriarchal families, the father is the head; in matriarchal families, the mother enjoys the highest authority and influence; 4) homogeneous and heterogeneous families. In homogeneous families, spouses come from the same social stratum; in heterogeneous families, they come from different social groups, castes, classes; 5) small families (1-2 children), medium-sized families (3-4 children) and large families (5 or more children). The most common in modern urbanized cities are the so-called nuclear families, consisting of parents and their children, that is, from two generations. The family performs a number of functions, among which the main ones are reproductive, educational, economic and recreational (removal of stressful situations). Sociologists distinguish between specific and non-specific family functions. Specific functions stem from the essence of the family and reflect its features as a social phenomenon. These include the birth, maintenance and socialization of children. Non-specific name the functions that the family is forced to perform in certain historical circumstances. These functions are associated with the accumulation and transfer of property, status, organization of production and consumption, etc. Another social institution, the institution of marriage, is closely connected with the institution of the family. As a rule, it is the married couple that forms the basis of the family. Marriage in sociology is understood as a society-sanctioned, socially and personally expedient, sustainable form of sexual relations. In the legal sense, marriage is a legally formalized voluntary and free union of a woman and a man, aimed at creating a family and giving rise to mutual personal, as well as property rights and obligations of the spouses. Marriage and family relations in the Russian Federation are governed by family law. The main source of family law is the Family Code of the Russian Federation. In accordance with the legislation on the family in the Russian Federation, only secular marriage is recognized, that is, a marriage legally formalized, concluded and registered with the civil registry offices. At the same time, the Family Code of the Russian Federation recognizes the legal force of marriages performed by Russian citizens in accordance with religious rites, if they took place in the occupied territories of the USSR during the Great Patriotic War, i.e., during the period when the registration authorities did not operate in these territories civil status. Marriage can be concluded only if the spouses comply with a number of conditions established by law.
There are two groups of such conditions. The first group includes positive conditions, the presence of which is mandatory for marriage: a) mutual voluntary consent of those entering into marriage; b) reaching the age of marriage, i.e. 18 years; if there are valid reasons, at the request of the spouses, the age of marriage may be reduced to 16 years. The Family Code provides for the possibility of marriage and more early age . This is allowed as an exception, taking into account special circumstances, if the laws of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation establish the procedure and conditions for concluding such marriages. The second group consists of negative conditions, i.e., circumstances that prevent marriage. Negative conditions include the following: a) the state of at least one of the persons entering into marriage in another registered marriage; b) the presence of a close relationship between the persons entering into marriage. Close relatives are recognized: relatives in a direct ascending and descending line (parents and children, grandfather, grandmother and grandchildren), as well as siblings, and this relationship can be either complete or incomplete (when a sister and brother have only a common mother or father) c) the existence of relations of adoption or adoption between persons wishing to marry; d) recognition by the court of the incapacity of at least one of the spouses due to a mental disorder. In order to conclude a marriage, the persons entering into marriage shall submit a joint written application to the bodies of civil status acts, in which they confirm their mutual voluntary consent to the conclusion of the marriage, as well as the absence of circumstances preventing the conclusion of the marriage. The marriage is concluded after a month from the date of filing the application. However, the law provides that, if there are valid reasons, the monthly period can be reduced or extended (in the latter case, by no more than 1 month), and in the presence of special circumstances (pregnancy, childbirth, direct threat to the life of one of the parties, etc. .) marriage can be concluded on the day of application. The decision to reduce or increase the period of marriage is taken by the civil registry office. Marriage is entered into in the personal presence of those entering into marriage. State registration of marriage is carried out by any civil registry office on the territory of the Russian Federation at the choice of the persons entering into marriage. Family law establishes a number of grounds under which a marriage may be declared invalid. These include: a) non-compliance by persons who have entered into marriage with the conditions of its conclusion established by law; b) concealment by a person entering into marriage, the presence of a venereal disease or HIV infection; c) the conclusion of a fictitious marriage, i.e. such a marriage into which the spouses or one of them entered into without the intention of creating a family. Marriage is recognized as invalid from the date of its conclusion. However, if by the time of consideration of the case on recognizing the marriage as invalid, those circumstances that, by virtue of the law, prevented its conclusion, have disappeared, the court may recognize the marriage as valid. Grounds for declaring a marriage invalid should be distinguished from grounds for terminating a marriage. The latter, according to the Family Code of the Russian Federation, are the death or declaration of one of the spouses dead, as well as the dissolution of marriage in the manner prescribed by law. The dissolution of a marriage is carried out at the civil registry offices or judicial order. In the civil registry offices, divorce is carried out in the following cases: 1) with mutual consent to the divorce of spouses who do not have common minor children; 2) at the request of one of the spouses, if the other spouse is recognized by the court as missing, incompetent or sentenced for committing a crime to imprisonment for a term of more than three years. Dissolution of marriage in these cases is carried out regardless of whether the spouses have common minor children. In all cases, the dissolution of the marriage is carried out after a month from the date of filing the application for the dissolution of the marriage. In the event of disputes between spouses during the dissolution of marriage in the civil registry offices (for example, on the division of property), such disputes are considered by the court. In a judicial proceeding, divorce is carried out in the following cases: 1) if the spouses have common minor children, with the exception of the cases noted above; 2) in the absence of the consent of one of the spouses to divorce; 3) if one of the spouses evades the dissolution of the marriage in the registry office, although he does not object to such dissolution (for example, refuses to submit a corresponding application, etc.). The law establishes a number of restrictions on the husband's rights to file claims for divorce (in particular, he does not have the right, without the consent of his wife, to initiate a divorce case during the wife's pregnancy and within a year after the birth of a child). The dissolution of marriage is carried out if the court determines that further living together spouses and the preservation of the family are impossible. In this case, the court has the right to take measures to reconcile the spouses. For such reconciliation, the court sets a period within 3 months, and the trial of the case is postponed for this time. If the measures for reconciliation of the spouses were unsuccessful and the spouses (or one of them) insist on the dissolution of the marriage, then the court decides on the dissolution of the marriage. If there is mutual consent to the dissolution of the marriage of spouses who have common minor children, the court dissolves the marriage without clarifying the motives for the divorce. When considering a case on dissolution of a marriage, the court decides on which of the parents, after the divorce, minor children will live, from which of the parents and in what amounts to collect child support, as well as on the division of property that is in the common property of the spouses. On all these issues, the spouses themselves can conclude an agreement and submit it to the court. The dissolution of marriage by the court is carried out after a month from the date of filing by the spouses of the application for dissolution of marriage. A marriage is considered terminated: a) in the event of its dissolution in the registry office - from the date of state registration of the dissolution of marriage in the register of acts of civil status; b) in case of dissolution of marriage in court - on the day the court decision enters into legal force (however, in this case, state registration of divorce is also necessary). Spouses are not entitled to remarry until they receive a certificate of divorce from the civil registry office.