The success story of Rustam Gilfanov - the founder of the industry for the production of modern reagents in Russia. Gilfanov Rustam - an honest entrepreneur

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

"KRASNOYARSK STATE PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY named after A.I. V. P. ASTAFIEVA

Faculty of Philology

Module 2 :

Old Russian literature

EDUCATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL COMPLEX OF THE DISCIPLINE

Direction: 050300.62 Philological education

profile: Foreign language and Russian as a foreign language

degree: bachelor of philological education

KRASNOYARSK 2012

EMCD was compiled by Ph.D., Associate Professor

Discussed at a meeting of the Department of Russian Literature

Approved by the Scientific and Methodological Council of the Faculty of Philology

Chairman of the NMSS Ph.D., Associate Professor

Protocol for the coordination of the work program of the discipline

“Russian Literature and Culture. Module: Old Russian Literature»

with other disciplines OOP directions 050300.62 Philological education, profile "Foreign language and Russian as a foreign"

for the 2012/13 academic year

The name of the disciplines, the study of which is based on this discipline		Proposals for changes in the proportions of the material, the order of presentation, etc.	Decision taken (protocol No., date) by the department that developed the program
Foreign literature and culture. Module "Foreign Literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance" (courses are studied in parallel)	foreign literature	The theme "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is studied after studying European epic medieval poems. The study of the theme "Russian Pre-Renaissance" is studied before the theme "European Renaissance". In the course of foreign literature, these data are taken into account.	Minutes of the meeting of the Department of Foreign Literature No. 2 dated 01.01.2001
Russian literature and culture. Module "Russian literature of the 18th century"	Russian literature	The course ends with a section on syllabic versification, the next course begins with the topic "Reform of Russian versification"	Minutes of the meeting of the Department of Russian Literature No. 1 dated 01.01.2001

change sheet

Additions and changes to the work program for the 2012/2013 academic year

The following changes are made to the work program:

1. The list of questions for the exam has been corrected.

2. The list of topics for abstracts has been corrected.

3. Changes have been made to the plan of practical training No. 4.

4. Updated bank of test tasks.

5. Title page updated.

The work program was revised and approved at a meeting of the Department of Russian Literature "05" September 2012 G.

The changes I approve:

Head of the Department Ph.D., Associate Professor

And about. Dean of the Faculty of Philology, Ph.D. in Philology, Associate Professor

1. Explanatory note 6 p.

2. Work program of the discipline 7 p.

2.1. Extract from standard 8 p.

2.2. Introduction page 9

2.4. Thematic plan 15 pages

2.5. Educational-methodical (technological) map of the discipline-16 pages.

2.6. Literary supply card 23 pages

4. Bank of control tasks and questions 30 pages.

5. Questions for the exam 47 pages.

6. Topics of abstracts 49 pages.

EXPLANATORY NOTE

Educational and methodological complex of discipline (EMCD) “Russian literature and culture. Module: Old Russian Literature" for full-time students of the direction 050300.62 "Philological education", profile "Foreign language and Russian as a foreign language" consists of the following elements:

1. work program disciplines, which includes its main content and educational resources: literary support and electronic resources.

1. Methodical recommendations for students, which contain tips and explanations that allow the student to optimally organize the process of studying the discipline “Russian Literature and Culture. Module: Old Russian Literature.

2. Bank of control tasks and questions in the discipline “Russian Literature and Culture. Module: Old Russian literature, which is represented by various tests and control questions, which allows you to deepen and expand the theoretical material on the topics studied. For each topic there are test questions to test students' knowledge and to consolidate educational material.

3. Questions for the exam, which is the final control of the student's development of competence in the field of history ancient Russian literature and culture.

4. Abstract topics, which reflects the most relevant and significant problems in the history of ancient Russian literature and culture, and checks the mastering of the issues recommended for self-study by the student.

Since the curriculum for this discipline does not provide for control and term papers, then they are absent; also not included in the curriculum. plan abstracts, but the list of abstract topics is given as an additional educational material. This discipline is conducted only for full-time students, therefore, a workbook, which is mandatory only for part-time education, is also missing.

WORKING PROGRAM OF THE DISCIPLINE

Russian literature and culture

Module: Old Russian literature

EXTRACT FROM THE STANDARD

State educational standard

higher professional education

DIRECTION 050300.62

PHILOLOGICAL EDUCATION

Degree (qualification) - bachelor

PHILOLOGICAL education

RUSSIAN LITERATURE AND CULTURE

Introduction

The content of the course of the discipline is of fundamental importance for the bachelor-philologist, who will have to face the seven-century cultural and historical period, unprecedented in the development of Russian literature, in which the formation of the Russian state and Russian culture took place, without which further development of the subsequent stages in the development of the history of Russian literature is strictly speaking, impossible.

The purpose of the discipline “Russian literature and culture. Module: Old Russian Literature" - to acquaint first-year students with the main periods of literature of the specified period (X-XVII centuries), its genre diversity, poetic features of the works studied, which will contribute to the formation of a worldview of a holistic and dynamic picture of the world.

The study of discipline at the university is implemented in a system of a number of forms academic work: lectures, seminars , independent work(self-training) of students.

Lectures lay the foundations for scientific knowledge of the discipline. They allow students to learn the characteristics of the genre system of Old Russian literature, the key historical and literary periods of the Old Russian era, as well as the analysis of the most important works. The logical continuation and development of the content of the lectures are seminars, in which students concretize and deepen the knowledge gained in the lecture course.

Course objectives:

1. Formation in students of the necessary knowledge in the field of the history of ancient Russian literature.

2. Education of a serious, thoughtful and respectful attitude to ancient Russian culture and literature.

3. The study of the main categories of ancient Russian literature in their dynamics and development.

4. Mastering knowledge in the field of continuity of literature of the 18th century, literature of the 19th and 20th centuries. ideas, images and ideals of ancient Russian literature.

As a result of studying the discipline, students should:

a) Know:

Causes of the circumstance of the emergence of ancient Russian literature;

The scale and aspects of the influence of ancient Russian literature on the development of Russian literature of subsequent eras;

The main fundamental categories of Russian medieval culture;

Basic concepts, terms, theories and principles of ancient Russian culture and literature;

Structural, poetological and ideological aspects of the main genres of ancient Russian literature: chronicle, prayer, life, walking, military story;

On the existence of problems facing modern philological science in the field of studying ancient Russian literature.

Orient yourself in the cultural and historical process, identify the features inherent in each cultural and historical era, analyze the works of ancient Russian literature using appropriate methods;

Establish the ratio of folklore and book elements in the works of ancient Russian literature;

To establish the parameters of the influence of monuments of ancient Russian literature on the works of subsequent cultural and historical eras, on the work of classic writers.

The course is intended for bachelors of the Faculty of Philology (direction 050300.62 "Philological education", profile "Foreign and Russian language as a foreign language"), is read in the II semester. 66 hours were allocated for the study, of which: 20 - lectures, 10 - seminars. The form of the report is an exam.

Module 1. Old Russian literatureXI- earlyXIVcenturies

1. The emergence of ancient Russian literature (2 hours).

Prerequisites for the emergence of ancient Russian literature, its ideological specificity, religious and church status. Author's consciousness. Creation and functioning of texts. The difference between ancient Russian literature and modern literature. Canon. Making sense of man

Scientific disciplines related to the study of ancient Russian literature. Archeography. Paleography. Types of Old Russian handwriting, filigree, titles. Textology. The concepts of list, edition, protograph, archetype, edition.

genre system. "Literary Transplantation". Genres "primary" and "unifying" (collections).

Periodization. Periods historical and literary.

"Natural" literature. Six Days and Physiologist. Translation hagiography. "The Life of Alexy, the Man of God". Type of feat, plot. "The Life of Eustathius Placis". Martyrdom, the connection of poetics with the traditions of the Hellenistic novel. "Alexandria" - chronographic and Serbian editions. Problematics, specifics of hero assessment, fantasy and fiction. Apocrypha. Existence, themes, poetics, connection with spiritual verses. and George Amartol. The difference between the Byzantine chronograph and the Russian chronicle narration. "The Tale of Barlaam and Joasaph", "The Tale of Akira the Wise". The role of translated monuments in the history of ancient Russian literature.

3. Chronicle writing (1 hour).

Types of time perception: paganism and Christianity. Departure from the temporal cycle. Type of "weather" narrative. Calendar systems. Chronicler as historian. Chronicle. Genre nature of the chronicle. "The Tale of Bygone Years". Main themes, genre trends, the role of folklore. Key folklore stories. Historiosophy of the Russian chronicler of the XI century. The fate of Russian chronicle writing. The evolution of the genre from XI to XVII. Fragments of tradition in the 17th and 19th centuries.

4. LiteratureXI- XIIcenturies Hagiography (2 hours).

"The Word on the Law and Grace of Hilarion" is a classic work of Russian oratorical eloquence. Dating, composition. Contrasting the Old Testament with the New. political bias. Style.

Russian hagiography. Types of hagiographic canons, types of achievement. Composition of hagiographic text. Cycle of works about Boris and Gleb. The composition of the cycle. The theme of princely strife, their causes. The historical situation in Rus' in 1015. The uniqueness of the feat of Boris and Gleb. Martyrdom and Passion-Bearing. compositional originality. "The Tale of Boris and Gleb". Conflict. Biography of Svyatopolk. images of princes. Significance of stories about Boris and Gleb for ancient Russian literature. "Borisoglebsk" motifs in "The Life of Mikhail Chernigov, in the Legend of the Battle of Mamaev.

"Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh". Political initiatives of Vladimir at the turn of the 11th - 12th centuries. Lubeck congress of 1097, its influence on the pathos of the Instruction. Composition: "teaching" autobiographical and "epistolary" parts of the text.

"The Word" and "The Prayer of Daniel the Sharpener". Two editions of the monument. ideology and conflict. The theme of the boyars and "evil wives". Prince image. Author of the Word. Stylistics, connection with oral tradition.

"Kyiv-Pechersky Paterik". Peculiarities of Patericon Narrative.

5. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" (1 hour).

The history of the text of the Word. Activities - Pushkin. Spaso-Yaroslavl Chronograph, Catherine's copy, 1800 edition. History of the study of the monument. "Skeptics" and "otpimists", "dark places" in the text, ways of reading them.

Poetics of the Word. The uniqueness of the work in the genre and stylistic aspect. genre trends. Artistic details. Folklore. The image of the main character. Reasons for the author's attention to the campaign of a minor prince. Knightly aesthetics in the Word. Ideology of the author, his historical views.

6. Literature of the era of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Genre of war story. (1 hour).

Historical aspects of the yoke. The point of view of the "Eurasians" and. Economic decline. Cultural reaction. Actualization of the eschatological theme in chronicle stories about the invasion of the Tatars.

"A word about the destruction of the Russian land". Textology of the monument. Text defect. Stylistics, deplorable intonation. "Legend of the city of Kitezh". Features of the existence of the plot from the XIII to the XVII centuries. International motif of a sinking city. Composition. Eschatology and utopianism.

Genre of war story. "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu". Textology. Zaraisky cycle. Poetics: conflict, influence of hagiographic tradition, deplorable motives, folklore influence, "military formulas".

Hagiography during the yoke. Actualization of the martyr conflict. "The Life of Mikhail Chernigov". "The Life of Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tverskoy". Synthesis of "military" and "hagiographic" poetics: "".

Chronicle of the era of the yoke. Galicia-Volyn Chronicle.

Module 2. Literature of the era of the Moscow kingdom (end ofXIV - XVIcenturies).

7. Russian Pre-Revival (end.XIV- earlyXVIvvchas).

Renaissance phenomenon in European culture. Reasons for the absence of the Renaissance in Rus': the monastic reform of the XIV century. Sergius of Radonezh and Metropolitan Alexy; strengthening church influence; new type statehood (Muscovy); the emergence of "royal" titles. "The Life of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich". Byzantine and second South Slavic influence. Hesychasm and the strengthening of the mystical tradition in church life. relation to the word. The style of "weaving words", "abstract psychologism".

Creativity of Epiphanius the Wise. "The Life of Sergius of Radonezh": monastic holiness, style. "The Life of Stephen of Perm". The originality of the genre nature of the monument.

Kulikovo cycle. Compound. "The Legend of the Mamaev Battle". "Zadonshchina". Influence of the Tale of Igor's Campaign. Compilation of poetics.

8. Genre of walking. (2 hours).

The popularity of the genre, its evolution: from pilgrimages to road builders, travelers, skasks and article lists. Understanding the pilgrimage, the author's position.

The Model of the World in Old Russian Walking. Lands "holy" and "filthy". Paradise "mental" and earthly. "Message of Vasily Kalika to Fyodor of Tverskoy about Paradise". "The Journey of Hegumen Daniel". Description of the holy land.

"Journey beyond the three seas of Afanasia Nikitin" is the pinnacle text of the genre. Historical basis. Route uniqueness. "Indian" motifs in ancient Russian literature. "The Tale of the Indian Kingdom", "The Word of the Rahmans", "Alexandria". India is like an earthly paradise. Real. Conflict ver. Language and style. Foreign language of Athanasius: ways of interpretation. Points of view -Peretz, . Democracy of Athanasius, genre traditions in the monument.

9. Literary processXV – XVIcenturies Publicism. (2 hours)

Features of medieval journalism, the genre of the message. Historical reasons for the emergence of tradition. Ferrara-Florence Cathedral 1439 Metropolitan Isidore. The position of the Russian Church and the Grand Duke. Feeling of confessional loneliness and national chosenness. Epistle of the monk Philotheus. Symbolic-eschatological understanding of history. The idea of ​​"Moscow - the Third Rome". The Tale of the Novgorod White Klobuk. "The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir". The inclusion of journalistic ideas in the mythology of power.

Eschatological forebodings of the end of the 15th century. 1492. Heretical movements of the end of the 15th - the first half of the 16th centuries. Strigolniki and "Judaizing". Literature attributed to heretics. Fedor Kuritsyn and his "The Tale of Dracula". The uniqueness of poetics, the duality of the assessment of the hero, the connection with the ideas of the era: the image tyrant ruler. . Development of the theme of unlimited power. "Big petition", "The legend of Magmet-saltan". The antithesis of "faith" and "truth".

Church controversy between the Josephites and non-possessors. The roots of the conflict. Different understanding of monastic life. Joseph Volotsky and Metropolitan Daniel are the ideologists of Josephism. Their opponents: Nil Sorsky, Vassian Patrikeyev, Maxim Grek. The meaning of the controversy. "The tragedy of Russian holiness" (G. Fedotov).

Literary process of the middle of the XVI century. generalizing literary projects: "Great Cheti-Minei", "Stoglav", "Domostroy", annalistic "Facial Code". The birth of the phenomenon of official literature. Termination of the publicistic process. Censorship.

Narrative narrative of the 15th-16th centuries. "The Legend of the Journey of John of Novgorod to Jerusalem". "The Tale of Basarga and his son Borzomysl". "Tale of Babylon". "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia".

10. with Andrei Kurbsky. (2 hours).

The historical and cultural meaning of the conflict between Grozny and Kurbsky. State outlook of Grozny. Influence political theories XV-XVI centuries The writing activity of the king. Canon and prayer to the terrible angel governor. Correspondence with Kurbsky. Chronology, opponent's assessments, style. Kurbsky's position. Evaluation of the Tsarist power and the fate of Russia in the "History of the Grand Duke of Moscow". Genre synthesis of the monument. The ideal of power according to Kurbsky, the inconsistency of the latter.

Module 3. Old Russian literatureXVIIin.

11. XVIIcentury in Russian literature. (2 hours).

The main ways of development of literature. Transformation of the genre system; democratization; liberalization of the canon; a new look at the person; the influence of the West; strengthening of secular tendencies.

A cycle of stories about the Troubles. The image of Boris Godunov. Publicism of the Time of Troubles. vision genre.

Western influence in Russian literature. The emergence of theater and syllabic poetry.

Democratic Literature. The emergence of parodies “Service to a tavern”, “Kalyazinskaya petition”, “Medicine for foreigners”. Parody as an awareness of the art form (). Tragic intonations in the laughter culture of this period. The Development of Fiction: The Generalized Hero in The Tale of Woe-Misfortune. Tragic comprehension of human destiny, the problem of choice and individualism. Plutovskaya and adventurous plot. "The Tale of Karp Sutulov". "The Tale of Frol Skobeev", "The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn". Conflict of old and new. The image of a person is beyond morality.

Hagiography of the 17th century "The Life of Juliana Lazorevskaya". The novelty of the feat, the real-biographical beginning.

Warrior story. A cycle of stories about the Azov siege seat of the Don Cossacks. The specificity of the Cossack literature.

12. Archpriest Avvakum. (1 hour).

Church reforms of Patriarch Nikon in 1653. Methodological error on the right. The evolution of Byzantine ritualism, the European origin of Greek books. The split of the church. The emergence of the Old Believers. Eschatological concept of history. The role of the Book of Faith and the Cyril Book. The transfer of apocalyptic prophecies to the present.

Archpriest Avvakum. Biography, review of creativity. Avvakum's attitude to the present. Estimates of Nikon, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Russian church, Russia. idea of ​​martyrdom. Justification for self-immolation. The connection of Avvakum with the ideas of publicists of the 15th - 16th centuries (Joseph Volotsky, Filofey, etc.).

Poetics of the Life of Avvakum. The problem of autobiography and its coverage in science. Avvakum's reflection on the genre, the author's position. Deliberate violation of the canon and fragments of traditional composition in the text. Self-sacralization. "Vyakane" and "grunt" as stylistic dominants. Avvakum language setting. The role of Praise for the natural Russian language. Naturalism, landscape, everyday details. The role of Avvakum in the history of Russian literature.

13. Syllabic poetry. (1 hour).

"Baroque", its specificity in Rus'. The emergence of the poetic tradition in Russia in the first half of the 17th century. Syllabic verses. The system of syllabic versification, its borrowed status. Simeon Polotsk and his students (Sylvester Medvedev, Karion Istomin). Connection with court culture. Conflict with the democratic tradition of the Old Believers. Creativity of Simeon Polotsky. "Rhymologion" and "Vetrograd Multicolored".

Thematic plan

studying the discipline “Russian Literature and Culture. Module: Old Russian Literature»

direction 050300.62 "Philological education", profile "Foreign and Russian as a foreign language"

	Name of modules and themes		Number of hours
Total	Of these, classroom lessons:		Seminars		Independent work
I.	Old Russian literatureXI- earlyXIVcenturies	33	15	9	6		18
	The emergence of ancient Russian literature
	The role of translated literature in the development of ancient Russian literature
	chronicle writing
	Literature of the XI-XII centuries. Hagiography
	"The Tale of Igor's Campaign"
	Literature of the era of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Genre of war story.
II.	Literature of the era of the Moscow kingdom (end.XIV - XVIcenturies)	19	9	7	2		10
	Russian Pre-Revival (late XIV - early XVI centuries).

XIX century in the history of Russia was a direct continuation of the previous one. Russia continued to expand its territories. After the annexation of the North Caucasus. Central Asia and other lands, it has become not just a huge, but a truly immense country - empire. The transformations begun by Peter I also continued. Russia slowly and, as it were, reluctantly emerged from its medieval past and was increasingly drawn into the New Age. However, its development was uneven.

The most profound and impressive changes took place in spiritual culture. In this area, the 19th century became a time of unprecedented rise and prosperity for Russia. If in the XVIII century. Russia loudly declared to the whole world about its existence, then in the XIX century. she literally burst into world culture, taking one of the highest and honorable places there.

The main merit in this belongs to two great Russian writers - F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy. Acquaintance with their work was a real discovery, revelation and shock for the West. Their enormous success contributed to the rise of the authority of the entire Russian spiritual culture, the strengthening of its influence and the rapid spread throughout the world.

As for material culture, economic and socio-political areas, here Russia's achievements were much more modest. Of course, there have been some successes in these areas as well. In particular, already in the first half of the XIX century. in Russia, domestic engineering is born. Steam engines are widely used. The first steamboat appears (1815). Between Moscow and St. Petersburg, the first railway begins to operate (1851).

The basis of the emerging industry is the rapidly developing metallurgy, where the Demidov plants in the Urals play a key role. The textile industry is developing successfully. The growth of industry contributes to the growth of cities, an increase in their population. Cities are increasingly beginning to dominate the countryside.

Nevertheless, the process of modernization of socio-economic life and material culture is proceeding slowly. The main brake is the remaining serfdom and autocracy. In this respect, Russia still remained a medieval feudal society.

The reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, changed the situation. However, this reform was inconsistent and half-hearted, it retained many factors hindering development, so its impact was limited. In addition, the political system of the autocracy remained practically unaffected. At the same time, the same factors had a stimulating effect on the spiritual life. They encouraged the Russian intelligentsia again and again to raise and seek answers to the eternal questions that have become for them: “Who is to blame?”, “What is to be done?”.

In general, the main and most important events and phenomena that determined the development of Russian culture in the 19th century were Patriotic War 1812 Decembrist uprising of 1825, serfdom and the reform of 1861 to abolish it.

Patriotic War of 1812 caused the growth of national self-consciousness and an unprecedented rise in patriotism. It awakened in Russians a sense of pride in their fatherland, in their people, who managed to defeat such a strong enemy, who defended not only their national freedom, but also the freedom of European peoples. All this contributed to a noticeable weakening and disappearance of extreme forms of admiration for everything Western, which took place in the upper strata of Russian society. The war also had a beneficial and inspiring effect on Russian art. Many artists devoted their works to the theme of war. As an example, we can point to L. Tolstoy's novel War and Peace.

The Patriotic War was also one of the main reasons for the emergence Decembrist movements - movements of the Russian revolutionary nobility. The Decembrists were deeply disappointed with the results of the war, believing that the Russian people who had won it had not gained anything for themselves. It was as if his victory had been stolen from him. Having defended the freedom of others, he himself remained in "slavery and ignorance" as before.

Based on the emancipatory ideas of Western philosophers and thinkers and influenced by the French and American revolutions, the Decembrists set radical tasks for their movement: the overthrow or restriction of autocracy, the abolition of serfdom, the establishment of a republican or constitutional system, the destruction of estates, the assertion of individual and property rights, etc. . The implementation of these tasks they considered as the fulfillment of "duty to the people." For the sake of this, they went to an armed uprising and were defeated.

The Decembrist uprising had a huge impact on the entire subsequent evolution of Russia. It caused a powerful upsurge in social and philosophical thought. His influence on artistic culture was great and deep. A.S. expressed his closeness to the ideas and spirit of Decembrism in his work. Pushkin, as well as other artists.

One of the central themes of Russian social and philosophical thought was the theme of choosing the path of development, theme of the future of Russia. This theme came in the 19th century. from the previous century. It tormented the Decembrists and was inherited by two important currents of Russian thought - Westernism and Slavophilism. Both currents rejected the existing regime of autocracy and serfdom, however, they deeply diverged in their understanding of the ways of reorganizing Russia. Differently They also looked at the transformations of Peter I.

Westerners - among whom were P.V. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin, T.N. Granovsky - stood on the positions of cultural universalism and rationalism. They highly appreciated the reforms of Peter the Great, advocated the development of Russia along the Western path, considering it universal and inevitable for all peoples. Westerners were supporters of European education, science and enlightenment, defining the role of laws and law in the organization of public life.

Slavophiles, who were represented by I.S. and K.S. Aksakovs, I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky. A.S. Khomyakov, on the contrary, stood on the positions of cultural relativism and Orthodoxy. They negatively assessed the Petrine reforms, which, in their opinion, violated the natural evolution of Russia. The Slavophils rejected the Western European path of development, insisted on the original development of Russia, and emphasized its religious-historical and cultural-national originality.

They did not reject the need for a modern industry and Agriculture, trade and banking, but believed that in this case one should rely on their own forms, methods and traditions, the sources of which are the Russian community, artel and Orthodoxy.

Slavophiles (I.V. Kireevsky, A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. Aksakov and others) laid the foundation for the development of an original and original Russian philosophy, which is based not on Western rationalism, but on Orthodox religiosity. In the knowledge of truth, Western philosophy gives preference to reason. Slavophiles develop the concept of the integrity of the spirit, according to which all human abilities participate in cognition - feelings, reason and faith, as well as will and love.

Truth, moreover, does not belong to an individual, but to a group of people united by a single love, from which a conciliar consciousness is born. catholicity opposed to individualism and disunity. Considering freedom, the Slavophils emphasized its conditionality by internal motives and motives, and rejected its dependence on external circumstances. A person in his actions and deeds should be guided by his conscience, spiritual, and not material interests.

Slavophiles were skeptical legal forms regulation of people's behavior. Therefore, they were not worried about the modest role of the legal principle in the life of Russian society. The main regulator of relations between people should be the true faith and the true Church. The Slavophils believed that only the Christian worldview and the Orthodox Church could lead mankind to the path of salvation. They were convinced that it was Russian Orthodoxy that most fully embodies the truly Christian principles, while Catholicism and Protestantism departed from the true faith. For this reason, they put forward the idea of ​​the messianic role of Russia in the salvation of mankind. The ideas of Slavophilism had a great influence on the subsequent development of Russian philosophy, they were continued in soil ideology, one of the main representatives of which was F. Dostoevsky.

Russian science and education of the 19th century.

The basis of the cultural rise of Russia in the XIX century. have been significant successes in development of education. By the beginning of the century, education in the country lagged noticeably behind the level of Western countries. The vast majority of the illiterate were not only the lower classes - peasants and philistines, but also the upper classes - merchants and even many nobles. The need for educated and knowledgeable people was acutely felt at all levels of government and society.

Therefore, already at the beginning of the century, the government of Alexander I decided to create a unified education system, which includes four levels: parochial one-class schools - for the lower strata, county two-class schools - for townspeople, merchants, and philistines; provincial four-class gymnasiums - for the nobility; universities and other higher education institutions.

After the reform of 1861, which abolished serfdom, the development of the education system accelerated. In the post-reform period, literacy in Russia increased from 7 to 22% of the population. By the end of the century there were 63 higher educational institutions, including 10 universities. The total number of students was 30 thousand. women's education develops, and in the 1870s. originates higher education for women. In 1869, the Lubyanka Higher Women's Courses were opened in Moscow, and in 1870, the Alarchinsky Courses in St. Petersburg. Bestuzhev women's courses in St. Petersburg became most famous. However, the formation of women's education was not without difficulties. Therefore, in the 1870s. at the University of Zurich, girls from Russia accounted for 80% of all foreign students.

Advances in education and awareness have contributed to further progress Russian science, which is in full bloom. At the same time, one unusual, but characteristic tradition for Russia, is emerging: to successfully develop without having the necessary and sufficient conditions for this, and remain unclaimed by society. In the 19th century Russia has given the world a whole galaxy of great scientists. The list of the greatest discoveries and achievements alone looks very impressive.

In the area of mathematics they are associated primarily with the names of N.I. Lobachevsky, A.A. Markova and others. The first created non-Euclidean geometry, which made a revolution in the ideas about the nature of space, which was based on the teachings of Euclid for more than two thousand years. The second developed the so-called Markov chains, which laid the foundation for a new direction in probability theory.

AT astronomy the works of V.Ya. Struve, who made the first determination of stellar parallax (mixing), established the presence of light absorption in interstellar space. The achievements of astronomy were largely associated with the founding of the Pulkovo Observatory, which became one of the best in the world.

Russian scientists have made a huge contribution to the development physics especially in the study of electricity. V.V. Petrov discovered an electric arc, which found a wide practical use. E.Kh. Lenz formulated a rule (later named after him) determining the direction of the inductive current; experimentally substantiated the Joule-Lenz law. B.S. Jacobi invented the electric motor, created electroforming, together with the submarine. Schilling Invented the electric telegraph and designed the first telegraph recorder, which operated on the St. Petersburg-Tsarskoye Selo line. Russian scientists have a great merit in creating the theory of electrolysis, in the development of electronic, atomic and quantum physics.

The progress of chemistry also owes much to Russian scientists. D.M. Mendeleev established the Periodic Law of Chemical Elements, which became the greatest achievement of world science. N.N. Zinin discovered a method for obtaining aromatic amines, synthesized quinine and aniline for the first time. A .M Butlerov created a new theory of the chemical structure of matter, laying the foundations of modern organic chemistry, discovered the polymerization reaction.

AT geography in January 1820, the greatest discovery was made by Russian navigators: the expedition F.F. Bellingshausen - M.P. Lazareva discovered a sixth of the world - Antarctica.

Great achievements have been made in the development biology and medicine. Russian doctors were the first to use painkillers - anesthesia. N.I. Pirogov he was the first to use ether anesthesia in military field conditions, created the atlas "Topographic Anatomy", which gained worldwide fame. N.F. Sklifosovsky began to use the antiseptic method during operations.

The social sciences also developed successfully, the leading among which was story. Russian scientists paid the main attention to the study of national history. N.M. Karamzin created the twelve-volume "History of the Russian State", which was an unprecedented success and was reprinted more than once. A major and respected historian was CM. Solovyov. He owns the "History of Russia from ancient times" in 29 volumes, containing rich factual material. A significant contribution to the study of the history of the fatherland was made by IN. Klyuchevsky. He wrote The Course of Russian History, as well as works on the history of serfdom, estates, and finances.

Significant achievements have been made linguistics. Here the activity deserves special mention. IN AND. Dalia, compiler " explanatory dictionary living Great Russian language”, on which he worked for about 50 years and which has retained its significance to this day.

The 19th century was the time of formation as an independent science. It critically masters the achievements of Western philosophical thought in the person of Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Hartmann, Nietzsche, and others. At the same time, it develops a rich spectrum of original schools and trends, from left-radical to religious-mystical. The largest figures were: P.Ya. Chaadaev, I.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Herzen, N.G. Chernyshevsky, B.C. Solovyov.

The same can be said about sociology and psychology: they are also going through a period of active formation.

Russian literature of the 19th century.

The most favorable and fruitful XIX century. turned out to be for the artistic culture, which experienced an unprecedented upsurge and flourishing and became a classic. The main directions of Russian art were sentimentalism, romanticism and realism. The main role belonged to literature.

Founder and central figure sentimentalism was in Russia N.M. Karamzin. In the story "Poor Liza" he vividly showed the characteristic features this direction in art: attention to common man revealing his inner world of feelings and experiences, glorifying the "natural simplicity" of the patriarchal way of life. To one degree or another, sentimentalism was present in the work of many Russian writers, but as an independent direction it was not widely used.

Romanticism had much greater influence and distribution. It had several currents. The theme of citizenship, patriotism and freedom is most strongly expressed in the works of the Decembrist poets: K.F. Ryleeva, A.I. Odoevsky, V.K. Kuchelbecker. Civil and freedom-loving motifs also sound in the work of A.A. Delviga, I.I. Kozlova, N.M. Yazykov. The depths and state of the spiritual world with a touch of fantasy and melancholy are the content of the works of V.A. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkov. Philosophical lyrics, deep psychologism, Slavophile ideas and reverent love for Russia found expression in the works of F.I. Tyutchev and V.F. Odoevsky.

By the beginning of the 1830s. in Russian literature asserts realism and becomes the focus. In its formation, an important role was played by the work of A.S. Griboyedov and And.BUT. Krylov. However, the greatest names of Russian realism, of all Russian literature and culture, are A.S. Pushkin, F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Tolstoy.

A.S. Pushkin became the founder of Russian literature, the creator of the Russian literary language. It is in his work that the Russian language for the first time appears truly great, powerful, truthful and free. His early works - "Ruslan and Lyudmila", "Gypsies", "Prisoner of the Caucasus", etc. - are in line with romanticism.

Then he moves to the position of realism. All types and genres of literature are represented in his work. In poetry, he acts as a singer of freedom. In the novel "Eugene Onegin" he draws large-scale pictures of Russian life. The tragedy "Boris Godunov" and the story "The Captain's Daughter" are dedicated to significant events in the history of Russia.

A.S. Pushkin was not only a great artist, but also an outstanding historian and thinker. In a dispute with P. Chaadaev, he gives a more subtle, deeper and more convincing understanding of the place and role of Russia in world history. Critically evaluating the Asiatic ignorance existing in Russia, wild arbitrariness and violence, the lack of rights of the people, he opposes violent methods of changing the existing situation. A.S. Pushkin had an enormous influence on the entire subsequent development of Russian literature, philosophy and all culture.

F.M. Dostoevsky and L.N. Russian literature and culture owe their world fame and recognition to Tolstoy. In his work F.M.Dostoevsky wrestled with what he defined as "the mystery of man." His main works, Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, The Brothers Karamazov, and others, are devoted to unraveling this mystery. passion and duty. At the same time, Dostoevsky goes beyond the bounds of literature and acts as a deep philosopher and thinker. With his work, he had a huge impact on such philosophical movements as existentialism and personalism, for the entire modern spiritual culture.

In the work of L.N. Tolstoy one of the central themes is the search for a moral ideal and the meaning of life. This theme runs through almost all of his works - the novels Anna Karenina, Resurrection, the story The Death of Ivan Ilyich, etc. In the grandiose epic War and Peace, Tolstoy examines the origins of the victory of the Russian people in the war of 1812, which he sees in an extraordinary upsurge of patriotic spirit.

Tolstoy is the creator of the religious and philosophical doctrine, the basis of which is the development of the "true religion" of universal love, kindness and non-violence. He had a huge impact on world literature and culture.

Among the great Russian writers who have received worldwide recognition are also M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.FROM. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, A.P. Chekhov.

Along with literature, an amazing flourishing is going through Russian music. Already in the first decades of the XIX century. a number of excellent composers appear, many of whom gravitate towards romanticism. Romance is the leading genre. He is represented by A.A. Alyabiev, P.P. Bulakhov. A.E. Varlamov, A.N. Verstovsky, A.L. Gurilev and others.

most popular romances A.A. Alyabyeva became "Nightingale", "Beggar". P.P. Bulakhov is the author of no less popular romances and songs - "Troika", "Here is a big village on the way." A.E. Varlamov He became famous primarily for the song “A blizzard sweeps along the street” and the romance “At dawn, you don’t wake her up.” In total, he wrote about 200 romances and songs. BUT.L Gurilev belong to "Separation", "Bell", "Mother Dove" and other romances and songs. BUT .N. Verstovsky is one of the main representatives of Russian romanticism in music. In addition to romances, he also created the famous opera Askold's Grave.

The greatest names in Russian musical art are M.I. Glinka and G1.I. Chaikovsky. Glinka became the pinnacle in the development of Russian music in the first half of the 19th century. He is the founder of Russian classical music. His main works are the operas A Life for the Tsar and Ruslan and Lyudmila. With his compositions "Kamarinskaya", "Spanish Overtures" and others, the composer laid the foundations of Russian symphony. All subsequent Russian musical art developed under the strong influence of Glinka.

Tchaikovsky became the pinnacle of the development of Russian music in the entire 19th century. It is to him that she first of all owes her world fame. He created genuine masterpieces in all musical genres. His most famous operas are Eugene Onegin and The Queen of Spades. The ballets "Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty" received worldwide recognition. "Nutcracker". He created six symphonies, several piano and violin concertos. The musical genius of Tchaikovsky is comparable to that of Mozart.

A huge contribution to the development of Russian and world musical culture was made by the Mighty Handful, a group of outstanding Russian composers, which included M.A. Balakirev (head), A.P. Borodin, Ts.A. Cui, M.P. Mussorgsky and N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov.

The opening of conservatories in St. Petersburg (1862) and Moscow (1866) contributed to the successful development of Russian music.

Russian painting and art of the XIX century.

Great achievements were also noted in the development of fine arts, especially painting. Romanticism in Russian painting of the XIX century. represent O.A. Kiprensky and S.F. Shchedrin. The former is known mainly as a portrait painter, who painted Self-Portrait with Tassels Behind the Ear, A.S. Pushkin”, “E.P. Rostopchin” and others. The second created poetic images of Italian nature, in particular the series “Harbors in Sorrento”.

In creativity K.P. Bryullov romanticism is combined with classicism. His brushes belong to such famous paintings as "The Last Day of Pompeii", "Bathsheba", etc.

From the middle of the XIX century. realism becomes the leading trend in Russian painting. his approval and successful development contributed to the Association of Wanderers, which arose in 1870, which included almost all the best Russian artists of that time. The highest flourishing realism in painting reached in the works I.E. Repin and IN AND. Surikov. The first created such masterpieces as "Barge Haulers on the Volga", "Religious Procession in the Kursk Province", as well as portraits of "Protodeacon". "Mussorgsky" and others. The second is known for the canvases "Morning of the Streltsy Execution", "Boyar Morozova", "Mentikov in Berezov", etc.

Outstanding realist artists were also I.N. Kramskoy, V.M. Vasnetsov, V.G. Perov, P.A. Fedotov, A.K. Savrasov, I.I. Shishkin.

Also developing very successfully Russian theater. Its heyday is associated with the name of the great playwright A.N. Ostrovsky, whose creative destiny was connected with the Maly Theater in Moscow. He created the plays "Thunderstorm", "Profitable Place", "Forest", "Dowry", the production of which made the Russian theater a classic. An outstanding actor on the Russian stage was M.S. Shchepkin.

The impressive successes and achievements of Russian culture still seem amazing and incredible today. But they really were and allowed Russia to take its rightful place among the advanced countries of the world.

Compared with Western European countries, Rus' adopted Christianity late, only in the tenth century. The initial development of Russian literature took place under the influence of Byzantium i.e. Eastern Roman Empire with its capital in Constantinople. The oldest literary monuments date back to the 11th century. and written in the old Church Slavonic language. The earliest surviving manuscripts were written in Kyiv, which was then at the crossroads of the most important international trade routes and was one of the most prosperous and cultural cities of medieval Europe.

Chronicles, the lives of saints and monks, sermons and several secular stories written in the Kievan period (1030-1240) have come down to us. The most famous of the chronicles is Tale of Bygone Years, which deals with the prehistory of the Eastern Slavs and describes both historical and semi-legendary events of the period 8601240. This is the work of several monks, primarily Nestor and Nikon. It contains valuable information that helps to recreate the history of ancient Rus', as well as stories fused with chronicle narration and distinguished by originality and entertainment. Remarkable examples of church eloquence inspired by Byzantine models, A Word on Law and Grace(11th century) Metropolitan Hilarion of Kyiv and Instruction for the first Sunday after Easter(12th century) Cyril, Bishop of Turov. But the most vital reading of the inhabitants of medieval Rus' was the lives of the saints. The two most famous authors of this kind of biographies were Nestor and Bishop Simeon.

The highest literary achievement of the Kyiv period was A word about Igor's regiment, a work by an unknown author of the 12th century. This prose poem tells about the unsuccessful campaign (1185) of Prince Igor against the militant nomads of the Kipchaks (Polovtsy) the people who lived in the steppes of southern Rus'. The richness of the images, the sublime lyrical structure and the perfection of the style make it an unsurpassed creation of the literature of ancient Rus'.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion of 12381240 ended the cultural supremacy of Kyiv. Kyiv, along with other cities, was sacked, and the Tatars, as the conquerors were called, made the Russian principalities their tributaries for more than two hundred years. The difficult situation was aggravated by the attacks of the Poles, Lithuanians and Swedes, as well as strife between the Russian princes. Only in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380) did the Russians, under the leadership of the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Donskoy, win a decisive victory over the Tatars for the first time. This event inspired Zephanius of Ryazanets to write a prose poem Zadonshchina, a work of high artistic merit, although not as impressive as A word about Igor's regiment.

In these troubled ages continued to be created literary works, mostly devoted to the struggle of Rus' with the conquerors. Many of them are marked by the influence of the ornate pompous style, borrowed from Byzantium and Poland. Among the exceptions The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom(15th century), an artless and chaste love story, imbued with folklore motifs.

By 1480, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was overthrown, and Rus' was united by Ivan III (ruled in 14621505) under the auspices of the Muscovite state (the city of Moscow and the conquered surrounding lands). A characteristic feature of the literary process of the peaceful decades of the 16th century. was the compilation of grandiose encyclopedic works: Great Menaion Cheti, Degree book of royal genealogy and monumental multi-volume history, Nikonovsky Front Chronicle. see also CHETI-MENEI.

The most popular genres of the 16th century. there were military stories and political controversy. The most famous example of the first of them The story of the coming of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov, written in an extremely ornate style. The correspondence between Ivan IV (the Terrible) and his former governor, Prince Andrey Kurbsky, who had fled to Lithuania, which had fled to Lithuania, continued from 1564 to 1579, is an example of a written polemic. Laconically and caustically, Kurbsky protests against the extermination of the boyars perpetrated by his sovereign, and Ivan, not yielding to him in sarcasm, but more verbosely denounces the boyar dominance.

Historians complete the medieval period of development of Russian literature with the 17th century, when new foreign influences fully affected the content and form of works. Significant evidence of the changes is the biography of the head of the Old Believers schismatics. His autobiography The life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by him replete with realistic descriptions of modern reality.

see also A WORD ABOUT IGOREV'S POLIC; ZADONSHINA; THE TALE OF TIME YEARS CHRONICLE.

Literature of the 18th century By the end of the 17th century. religious plots and characters were replaced by fictional images and secular themes. Among such works, the greatest artistic merits are The Tale of Savva Grudtsyn, where the hero's love affairs in a merchant and military environment are vividly and vitally described; The Tale of Frol Skobeev, in which the rogue hero, eschewing moralizing, paints with taste how he infiltrated high society by deceit; and the best of them The Tale of Woe-Misfortune, written in verse: it tells about the dissolute life of a young man and his moral revival.

The versatile interest of Peter the Great in Western Europe was more practical than cultural, so that literary studies in his reign (1682-1725) did not enjoy special official support. However, he abolished the Church Slavonic print type and introduced everyday speech into written use. The flourishing of literature was not marked by the reign of the successors of Peter Anna Ivanovna (17301740) and Elizaveta Petrovna (17411762). The first signs of the influence of French neoclassicism on the development of Russian literature are noticeable during this period in the satires of Prince A.D. Kantemir (17081744) and the odes of V.K. Trediakovsky (17031768). M.V. Lomonosov (17111765) dominated the literature, singing in his odes to the Russian sovereigns, exalting the greatness of the Lord and praising science, industry and education. He also left significant works on linguistics, stylistics and metrics, which greatly contributed to the formation of the Russian literary language.

During her long reign (17621796), Catherine the Great tried in every possible way to attract her subjects to art and literature. Translations of the works of such French writers as P. Corneille, J. Racine, Molière and Voltaire served as examples of poetry, prose and dramaturgy. Historical epic poems, odes in the spirit of Horace, poetic tales and fables were composed by many poets, among whom was G.R.Derzhavin (17431816). Distinguished by a strong and independent character and endowed with great talent, he was undoubtedly the greatest Russian poet of the 18th century. The mighty inspiration of his numerous odes and other poetic creations is fully expressed, for example, in the famous waterfall. His mixture of sublime moral pathos with a joyful intoxication with everyday life has a special attraction.

A.P. Sumarokov (17171777), “the father of Russian drama”, was one of the founders and leaders of the first permanent theater, established in St. stage productions and acting, rather than the plays themselves. Sumarokov's tragedies, mostly playing on the conflict between "feelings and duty" characteristic of French neoclassicism, are written in rhymed couplets. Interesting are the comedies of Sumarokov's son-in-law Ya.B. Trouble from the carriage(1779), denunciation of serfdom; and V.V. Kapnist (17571823), in particular, his comedies Yabeda(1798), where judges and lawyers are ridiculed.

famous playwright of the 18th century. was D.I. Fonvizin (17441792), who gained fame with two comedies. Brigadier(1766) A scathing satire on a servile imitation of the French. AT Undergrowth(1782) Fonvizin creates a series of vivid images illustrating the stupid existence of the Prostakovs.

Catherine the Great encouraged prose literary experiments by founding the first Russian satirical magazine, Vsyakaya Vyachina (1769), inspired by the famous English Chatterbox and Spectator, known in French translations. Other satirical magazines appeared; the best of them were published by N.I. Novikov (17641816). However, the empress banned them when they became sharply critical of her reign in the last years, marked by reaction. She also banned a book of great historical significance. Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow(1790) A.N. Radishchev (17491802), who was exiled to Siberia for impudent denunciation of the political and social order.

Few Russian novels were published during the reign of Catherine; some of them are imitations of the famous English novels of the 18th century. creations of S. Richardson, G. Fielding and L. Stern. The most popular work of the then literature was a sentimental story about a peasant woman seduced by a nobleman, Poor Lisa(1792) essay by N.M. Karamzin (17661826). This story and other prose works of Karamzin, especially his Letters from a Russian traveler(1791), heralded at the end of the century the advent of sentimentalism in Russian literature, which was under the strong influence of French and English poets and novelists. However, the most significant achievement of Karamzin was the introduction of a new literary style of Russian prose, cleansed of Slavicisms and focused on French language culture, syntax and style. His famous twelve-volume History of Russian Goverment(18181829) was an example of this new style and largely predetermined the development of the Russian literary language.

Literature of the 19th century The first forty years of the 19th century are called the Golden Age of Russian poetry. The greatest poet of Russia A.S. Pushkin (17991837) dominated here, whose first triumph was the poem Ruslan and Ludmila(1820). This was followed by a series of romantic poems imbued with the impressions of his stay in southern Russia, and finally Pushkin wrote a novel in verse. Eugene Onegin(completed in 1830). This brilliant narrative (“a novel in verse”) has more than 5,000 lines of poetry, enclosed in stanzas, and is a story from modern Russian life. The images of the hero and heroine, Eugene and Tatyana, and the story of their ruined love influenced all of later Russian literature. Pushkin created several more great poetic works, incl. incomparable poem Bronze Horseman(1833); a number of prose works and several hundred poems, distinguished by their classical simplicity of form and lyrical penetration.

Many poets recognized Pushkin as their teacher, following him in the field of form and subject matter. The greatest Russian fabulist, poet I.A. Krylov (17681844), whose witty poetic parables won wide popularity as lessons in sanity and examples of language skills, stood apart. The best poems and romantic poems by M.Yu. Lermontov (18141841), in particular, a brilliant poetic story Demon(18291833), provided him with wide popularity. Philosophical poems and masterpieces of love lyrics by F. Tyutchev (18031875) complete the Golden Age of Russian poetry.

The development of artistic prose in the early 19th century. acquaintance with the historical novels of W. Scott, widely known in Russian translations, greatly contributed. An outstanding example of this genre Captain's daughter(1836) Pushkin, a fascinating story from the time of the Pugachev rebellion under Catherine the Great. Closer to reality Tales of Belkin(1831) five narratively excellent stories from contemporary life, plus a short story Queen of Spades(1834) about the obsession with gambling: in terms of intensity of action and laconic expressiveness of style, it has no equal in Russian fiction. The famous Byronic hero of Lermontov's masterpiece Hero of our time(1840) a completely romantic image.

The main prose writer of this period, who had a decisive influence on the development of realism, was N.V. Gogol (1809-1852). His early stories are full of humorous romantic effects involving ghosts, witches, and other supernatural beings. Later, he combines romantic techniques with unusually embossed realistic writing; for example, in Tales of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich(1835), where a comic narrative leads to a tensely dark ending; or in Overcoats(1842), where a poor census official dies of grief when robbers rip off his new overcoat, acquired at the cost of incredible sacrifices that swallowed up all his meager salary. However, Gogol's fame is based primarily on the great novel Dead Souls(1842), with its bizarre plot the story of the purchase of "revision souls" of dead serfs.

Pushkin's historical play Boris Godunov(1825) an attempt to write a Russian tragedy in blank verse. Many of her scenes are distinguished by magnificent literary drama, and there are many sublime poetic passages in her, but she never had theatrical success. However, two plays of this period belong to the most glorious achievements of the Russian theater. Woe from Wit(18221823) AS Griboedova (17951829) social satire, a play full of brilliant witticisms, sayings and aphorisms. In stage popularity, Gogol's famous comedy can compete with her. Auditor(1836) about how in a small town a passing buffoon is mistaken for a capital auditor.

The extraordinary flowering of Russian realistic fiction in the second half of the 19th century. took place against the backdrop of socio-political ferment, which began as early as the 1840s, during the reign of Nicholas I (1825-1855). The forerunner of the reforms was the literary critic V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848), who taught writers a realistic approach to such social problems Russia as serfdom, and their awareness of their role as critics social order. Belinsky's activity was continued in the 1860s by talented critics N.G. Chernyshevsky (18281889) and N.A. Dobrolyubov (18361861). These reformers were Westerners who believed that Russia should develop along the path of Western European civilization. They were opposed by the Slavophiles, who proclaimed adherence to the traditions of ancient Rus', the Orthodox faith and the tsarist autocracy.

Among the numerous novelists of this period there are three giants known all over the world: I.S. Turgenev (18181883), F.M. Dostoevsky (18211881) and L.N. In addition, I.A. Goncharov (18121891), the author of the immortal Oblomov (1858).

Both poetic descriptions of nature and deep penetration into the human psyche are inherent in Turgenev's first work Hunter's Notes(18471852). Both of these features, along with a penchant for socio-political issues, distinguish the two subsequent novels, Rudin(1856) and Noble Nest(1859). Turgenev's favorite plot pair appears in them: a weak-willed hero and an unbending heroine; these types are clearly inspired by Eugene Onegin and Tatyana Pushkina. His influence also predetermined the realistic depiction of rural landowner life. Turgenev, without much success, also tried to create in the novel the day before(1860) the image of an active fighter against oppression, the Bulgarian Insarov. The same critics, however, lashed out at the superbly sculpted nihilist hero Bazarov in Turgenev's best novel Fathers and Sons(1862), seeing in him a caricature likeness of a revolutionary. Turgenev spent almost the rest of his life abroad; he continued to write, but his later works were weaker than the former ones.

The hero of Dostoevsky's first novel poor people(1846) was created under the influence of the image of a humiliated official in Gogol's Overcoats, but further creative development revealed his complete alienation to Gogol and the Pushkin tradition of Russian classical realism in general. Dostoevsky the writer did not consider himself a spokesman for the interests of any social stratum. Rather, he considered his work an attempt to "find a person in a person." AT Crime and punishment(1866), poverty hardened the student Raskolnikov, and he commits murder for money, relying on his theory that crime is permissible for "extraordinary people." The novel describes the struggle of his conscience with an immoral theory. Hero idiot(1868) Myshkin tries to harmonize sinful life with Christian virtues; at the same time, Dostoevsky analyzes the spiritual defeat of a “positively beautiful person”. Plot Brothers Karamazov(1879-1880) is essentially a search for God and faith in a world obsessed with practicality, dominated by little faith, a search symbolically expressed in Ivan's titanic spiritual struggle with himself, when he rejects God's world because it is full of senseless human suffering.

Great Novels of Dostoevsky Crime and Punishment, Moron, Demons(1872) and Brothers Karamazov propelled him to the pinnacle of literary glory. Critics found anything in his novels, from a malicious distortion of real life to revelations of the coming universal brotherhood. His extraordinary characters, such as Raskolnikov, Myshkin, Stavrogin and the Karamazovs, undoubtedly reflect in their painful life experience Dostoevsky's own passionate search for faith. In his novels, there is a complete fusion of abstract ideologization and uniquely concrete fictional characters and circumstances. His psychological analysis of human characters is unparalleled in world literature.

Unlike Dostoevsky, the creator of a very lifelike, but still displaced by subjective perception and glamours of the world, Leo Tolstoy was the spokesman for reality, and his picture of the world was fresh and vital thanks to the richness of his artistic vision. No novelist has ever seen so clearly surrounding reality and was not so absorbed not to the detriment, however, of consciousness and emotions, in the fullness of its manifestations. His early writings, excellent in their own right, were a preparation for writing a monumental novel. War and Peace(18631869). This is a historical canvas, where most of all the place is occupied by the relationship of five families between 1805 and 1820. The events of 1812 are depicted interspersed with thoughtful philosophical reflections on history, war and the nature of human greatness. The latest realism has not even remotely come close to the artistic achievements of the novel, where dozens and hundreds of real and fictional persons live a full life Natasha Rostova, Nikolai Rostov, Prince Andrei, Pierre Bezukhov, Platon Karataev and Napoleon. The next big novel Anna Karenina(18731877), one of the most significant love stories.

In 1880 Tolstoy had a painful spiritual experience that forced him to devote the rest of his life to a crusade against social evil. He did not completely renounce artistic creativity, but, minus Kreutzer Sonata(1889) and his last big novel Sunday(1899), Tolstoy abandoned the psychological and analytical writing of his great novels for a simplistic narrative style accessible to the general public.

Many writers made a worthy contribution to Russian literature in the second half of the 19th century. Above the general level of fiction rise such authors as M.E. Saltykov (18261889; pseudo. N. Shchedrin), an outstanding satirist, whose masterpiece Lord Golovlev(18751880) still relevant today; and N.S. Leskov (18311895), whose "chronicle" Cathedral(1872) enriched the fund of Russian classics. Later, wonderful stories and stories by A.P. Chekhov (18601904), of which it is worth mentioning such artistic achievements as Ward №6 (1892), Guys (1897), Lady with a dog(1899) and In the ravine(1900), gained him worldwide fame as a master of the small prose genre. In the short story genre, his famous rival was M. Gorky (18681936), among whose best works Chelkash, On rafts and Spouses Orlovs.

The poetry of this period can hardly be compared with the magnificent realistic prose, however, the truly masterful, realistic narrative poems of N.A. Nekrasov (18211877) certainly deserve mention. Peddlers(1861) and Who lives well in Rus'(18631877).

Like the novels and short stories of this period, the dramaturgy was also imbued with realistic pathos. The purely theatrical playwright A.N. Ostrovsky (18231886) wrote many plays, the best of which, for example Poverty is not a vice (1854), Thunderstorm(1859) and Dowry(1879), still do not leave the stage. Turgenev comedies Provincial(1851) and A month in the village(1855) are staged today. Tolstoy also wrote several plays, of which the realistic tragedy of peasant life is especially impressive. The power of darkness(1887). Of the works of Gorky, the play retains artistic value At the bottom (1902).

Significant most original playwright of the 19th century. was Chekhov. After more or less standard one-act and multi-act plays such as Ivanov(1887) and Goblin(1889), Chekhov wrote Seagull(1896). Without parting with artistic objectivity, he, however, came to the conclusion that the artist of the word is obliged to set himself a certain goal and, if necessary, pass a moral verdict on the never-ending discord between real life and its ideal image. To make this ideal tangible, he created an impressionistic, emotional mood that infected the theatrical audience. Such impressionism was imbued Gull and those great plays that followed her, Uncle Ivan (1900), Three sisters(1901) and The Cherry Orchard(1904). Chekhov created a new dramatic structure, consisting of interspersed monologues, where all the characters vied with each other to confess, but their confessions go unnoticed.

19th century ended with a kind of farewell flourishing of pre-revolutionary culture, and the realistic tradition was rejected, and new horizons opened up in poetry, prose, criticism and drama. Imbued with mysticism, religiosity and disappointment in life, having absorbed the then Western European trends of the "end of the century" and, as it were, imbued with a premonition of future revolutionary upheavals, this literary movement was at first called decadent, and in the period of maturity symbolist. His adherents charged the artist with the duty of figuratively recreating the “feeling of the inexpressible”, not naming objects and emotions, but rather alluding to them with the help of special word usage and sound writing, designed to convey symbolic overtones and dual meanings. The movement cultivated refinement of form, worship of beauty, art for art's sake. Among the many symbolist writers, some of whom fled to the West after the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, we note V.S. Solovyov (18531900), V.V. Rozanov (18561919), D.S. , K.D. Balmont (18671942), V.Ya. Bryusov (18731924), F.K. 1921).

Literature after 1917 c. The first tumultuous years after 1917, when numerous opposing literary groups emerged in response to the new social forces unleashed by the overthrow of the autocracy, were the only revolutionary period in the development of art in the Soviet Union. The struggle was mainly between those who joined the great literary tradition of 19th century realism and the heralds of the new proletarian culture. Innovation was especially welcomed in poetry, the primordial herald of the revolution. The futuristic poetry of V.V. Mayakovsky (18931930) and his followers, inspired by the “social everyday class struggle, represented a complete break with tradition. Some writers adapted old means of expression to new themes. So, for example, the peasant poet S.A. Yesenin (18951925) sang in the traditional lyrical style new life, which was expected in the countryside under Soviet rule.

Some works of post-revolutionary prose were created in the spirit of 19th-century realism. Most described the bloody Civil War of 19181920, as an example of this, the murderous pictures of social decline during the general strife in the novel by B.A. Pilnyak Naked year(1922). Similar examples can serve as stories about the red Cossack army in Cavalry(1926) by I.E.Babel or the memorable image of Levinson, the hero of the novel by A.A.Fadeev rout (1927).

The predominant theme in the early prose of the "fellow travelers of the revolution", in the words of L. Trotsky, was the tragic struggle between craving for the new and adherence to the old, the constant consequence of the civil war. This conflict is revealed in two early novels by K.A. Fedin (18921977) Cities and years(1924) and Brothers(1928), as well as L.M. Leonov in the novels Badgers(1925) and Thief(1928), whose psychological realism testifies to the influence of Dostoevsky. The connection with the writers of the past is even more strongly felt in the monumental trilogy of A.N. Tolstoy The Road to Calvary(19221941), depicting pre-revolutionary, revolutionary and post-revolutionary Russia.

In the absence of political censorship in the early years of Soviet power, much was allowed to satirical writers who in every possible way ridiculed the new regime, such as Yu.K. Olesha in sophisticated political satire Envy(1927) or V.P. Kataev in the story Wasteers(1926), an excellent portrayal of the ingenuous fraud of two Soviet officials; as well as the largest satirist of the Soviet era, M.M. Zoshchenko, in his many caustic and sad stories.

The Communist Party set about officially regulating literature with the beginning of the first five-year plan (1928-1932); it was heavily promoted by the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP). The result was an incredible amount of industrial prose, poetry and drama, which almost never rose above the level of monotonous propaganda or reporting. This invasion was anticipated by the novels of F.V. Gladkov, whose most popular work Cement(1925) described the heroic work of restoring a dilapidated factory. From prose, Pilnyak's novel about the construction of a huge dam that changes the course of the Moskva River deserves mention. The Volga flows into the Caspian Sea(1930), which strangely shows more sympathy for the former than for the new builders; two books by Leonov sot(1930) and Skutarevsky(1933), which, like the then countless production novels, are overloaded with redundant technical details, but in the depiction of characters, the usual Leonovian interest in the "inner man" and his spiritual life is still noticeable; and Time forward!(1932) Kataeva, where the story of the socialist competition of cement manufacturers is not without humor and entertainment. Far from many novels about collectivization Upturned virgin soil(1932) M.A. Sholokhov, perhaps because his main character Davydov is a deep image, endowed with human charm and in no way similar to the schematic images of industrial prose.

In 1932, the Central Committee ordered the dissolution of all literary associations and the founding of a single nationwide Union of Soviet Writers, which was established two years later at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers.

However, given the need for international agitation in the 1930s in the spirit of the Popular Front, some tolerance was shown towards the most talented writers. So, for example, although the main characters of Fedin's excellent novel The Abduction of Europa(1933-1935) and strive to be at the height of party tasks, they still cannot hide their negative attitude towards some especially ridiculous attitudes; communist hero Kurilov in Leonov's novel road to the ocean(1935) sadly reflects at the end of the story how much he missed in life, devoting it entirely to the sacrificial service of the party. The work that fully complied with official instructions was an autobiographical novel by N.A. Ostrovsky How steel was tempered(1934), which was a huge success. His hero Pavel Korchagin became a model of a "positive hero" or "new Soviet man", but his character lacks authenticity, since the world in which he lives and fights has an unnatural black and white color.

During this period, Sholokhov completed the great novel Quiet Don(19281940), which was recognized as a classic work of Soviet literature and awarded the Nobel Prize in 1965. This is a broad epic panorama of the events of war, revolution and fratricidal strife, culminating in the conquest of the Cossacks by the Red Army.

Socialist realists spawned many plays devoid of drama about modern Soviet reality. Significantly better than others aristocrats(1934) N.F. Pogodin on the material of the construction of the White Sea-Baltic Canal by prisoners and his own two plays about Lenin: Man with a gun(1937) and Kremlin chimes (1941); distant(1935) by A.N. Afinogenov, the play is rather Chekhov's than an example of socialist realism; excellent drama by Leonov Polovtsian gardens(1938), where the ideological attitude is subordinated to the task of psychological disclosure of the image.

Of all the genres, poetry is the most difficult to regulate, and among the mass of poetic production of the 1930s, published by such leading Soviet poets as N. S. Tikhonov, S. P. Shchipachev, A. A. Prokofiev, M. A. Svetlov, A.A. Surkov, S.I. Kirsanov, M.V. Isakovsky, N.N. Aseev and A.T. Tvardovsky, the only significant work that seems to have retained artistic value, Country Ant(1936) Tvardovsky, a long poem whose hero, a typical peasant Nikita Morgunok, after many misadventures enters the collective farm. Here socialist realism does not hinder the matter in any way; skillfully fused with the logic of events, it seems to contribute to their artistic plausibility. Several collections of B. L. Pasternak (1890-1960) were published in the 1930s, but they contained mostly his old poems. Since 1937, Pasternak began to give preference to poetic translations, while he himself wrote less and less.

During the repressions in the second half of the 1930s, many writers were arrested, some were shot, others spent many years in camps. After Stalin's death, some were posthumously rehabilitated, like Pilnyak or the remarkable poet O.E. Mandelstam; and those who were excommunicated from literature, like A.A. Akhmatova, were again allowed to publish. Many writers of the Stalin era, seeking to avoid the dangers of modern themes, took up writing historical novels and plays. The appeal to history suddenly became popular on the rise of nationalism, which the party encouraged in the face of the growing threat of war. Attention is often drawn to the key moments of the glorious military past, as in Sevastopol Strada(19371939) S.N. Sergeev-Tsensky, an exciting story about Russian heroism during the siege of Sevastopol in the Crimean War. The best of the historical novels of the time was Peter I(19291945) A.N. Tolstoy.

Immediately after the German invasion in 1941, literature was mobilized to support the warring country, and until 1945 almost every printed word contributed in one way or another to the defense of the fatherland. The work of those years was for the most part short-lived, but some works of talented writers had outstanding artistic merit. Pasternak, K.M.Simonov and O.F.Berggolts created excellent examples of lyrics. Several impressive narrative poems about the war have been published, including Kirov with us(1941) Tikhonov, Zoya(1942) M.I. Aliger, Pulkovo meridian(1943) V.M. Inber and Vasily Terkin(19411945) Tvardovsky the image of a Russian soldier, which has become almost legendary. Perhaps the most remarkable works of the then artistic prose are Days and nights(1944) Simonova, Capture of Velikoshumsk(1944) Leonova, son of the regiment(1945) Kataev and Young guard(1945) Fadeeva. Among the particularly successful wartime plays Front(1942) by A.E. Korneichuk, where the incompetence of Soviet generals of the old school was denounced; Russian people(1943) Simonova depiction of the selflessness of Soviet soldiers and non-military citizens in the face of death; and two plays by Leonov, Invasion(1942) and Lyonushka(1943), both about the fierce struggle of the Russian people under the German occupation.

Soviet writers hoped that the party would expand the limits of the relative creative freedom granted to them during the war, but the decision of the Central Committee on Literature of August 14, 1946 put an end to these hopes. Art must be inspired politically, declared the Soviet politician A.A. Zhdanov, and "party spirit" and socialist realism should be the guide for the writer.

After Stalin's death in 1953, growing dissatisfaction with strict regulation was reflected in the story of I.G. Ehrenburg Thaw(1954), about the plight of artists forced to create under the control of their superiors. And although the party organs severely reprimanded the rebellious authors at the Second Congress of Writers (1954), the speech of the First Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU N.S. Khrushchev at the 20th Party Congress gave rise to a wave of protest against interference in the creative process. In many works of poetry, prose and drama, young authors denounced not only the abuses of power of the Stalin era, but also the ugly phenomena of modern reality. The novel by V.D. Dudintsev, which had a wide readership success Not by bread alone(1956), with his critique of party bureaucracy, was indicative of the new mood of literature. In 1957, when the rebellious spirit worried the authorities, Khrushchev reminded the writers that they should follow the communist ideology. Publication in the same year abroad of Pasternak's novel Doctor Zhivago was severely condemned in the party press, and Pasternak was forced to refuse the Nobel Prize in 1958. The noisy scandal that the book caused helped to cope with literary ferment, and at the Third Congress of Writers in 1957, an atmosphere of humility again reigned.

In the early 1960s, the need for greater freedom of artistic expression in literature and art was expressed with new force, especially through the efforts of "angry young people", of which the poets E.A. Yevtushenko and A.A. Voznesensky were most famous. Voznesensky's poetry is distinguished by experiments with language, bold images and a variety of themes; all this is brilliantly illustrated by his two best books, triangular pear(1960) and Antiworlds (1964).

The 1960s were remarkable not only for new works, but also for the first time published old ones. Thus, readers had the opportunity to get acquainted with the work of M.I. Tsvetaeva (1891-1941), who committed suicide shortly after returning from exile. The name of Boris Pasternak appeared again in the press, although only his poems were published; Doctor Zhivago was published in the Soviet Union thirty years later than in the West. The most important literary discovery of the decade was the work of M.A. Bulgakov (18911940), previously known for his staging dead souls Gogol and novel white guard(1924), where, unlike most works of Soviet literature, the opponents of Soviet power during the Civil War are depicted not as despicable scoundrels, but as bewildered people defending a hopeless cause. Posthumously published novels and short stories won Bulgakov the reputation of the finest satirist and, in general, one of the best Russian prose writers. theatrical romance, published in 1965, was a mocking caricature of the famous theater director K.S. Stanislavsky. Magnificent Romance The Master and Margarita(1966-1967) touches on many topics related to art and guilt. The third significant work of Bulgakov, the story dog's heart, was published abroad in 1969. A bizarre story about a scientific experiment that turned an ordinary animal into a terrible creature that combines the worst human and canine properties, was considered by the authorities a dangerous parody of the Soviet experience in raising a new person.

In the 1960s, the Soviet theater also gradually revived both due to the new repertoire (for example, plays by V.S. Rozov and A.N. Arbuzov), and the resumption of stage experimentation of the 1920s. Poetry was enriched by new talents Bella Akhmadulina and Novella Matveeva. Some young novelists, such as Yu.P. Kazakov and Yu.M. Nagibin, sought to use the experience of such pre-revolutionary Russian masters of the genre as Chekhov; others, such as V.P. Aksenov, took modern Western writers such as J. D. Salinger as a model.

The most significant literary events of the 1960s were the publication in 1962 of the novel by A. I. Solzhenitsyn One day Ivan Denisovich and the trial of A.D. Sinyavsky and Yu.M. Daniel in 1966. The subsequent work of Solzhenitsyn and Sinyavsky, two of the foremost prose writers of the post-Stalin era, reflects the development of Soviet literature during the Brezhnev era.

Following the publication One Day Ivan Denisovich, which brought him universal fame, Solzhenitsyn managed to publish only a few stories, the best of which is Matrenin yard(1963); after that, the doors of Soviet publishing houses closed before him. His main novels In the first circle and cancer corps were published abroad in 1968, and in 1969 he was expelled from the Union of Soviet Writers. In 1970 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. In 1971, a novel was published in the West August the Fourteenth, the first in a series of historical novels establishing the causes of the revolution. It was followed in 1973 by the first volume of a monumental documentary study of the Soviet labor camp system Gulag Archipelago. In the midst of the scandal caused by this publication, Solzhenitsyn was stripped of his Soviet citizenship and expelled from the country. After some time, he settled in the United States, where he continued to work on a series of historical novels and released memories of the Khrushchev era. The calf butted with the oak(1975). In 1994 he returned to Russia.

After almost entirely serving a seven-year camp term, Sinyavsky was released, he was allowed to return to Moscow. In 1973 he emigrated to France, where in 1975 he published critical studies on Pushkin and Gogol ( Walks with Pushkin and In the shadow of Gogol) and camp memoirs Voice from the choir(1976). Autobiographical novel Goodnight! came out in 1984.

During the Brezhnev era, official control over Soviet literature did not weaken, and many talented authors were forced to emigrate from the Soviet Union. Among the most prominent emigrants were the poet I.A. Brodsky, the satirist V.N. Voinovich and the writer-philosopher A.A. Zinoviev. Brodsky was tried in 1964 for "parasitism" and sent into exile for forced labor. He was released in 1965 when the publication of his first book of poems in the West brought attention to his plight, but was forced to emigrate in 1972. In 1987 he became the fifth Russian writer to receive the Nobel Prize, and in 1991 he was awarded the title of Poet Laureate of the United States. Voinovich emigrated to West Germany in 1981. His most famous book The Life and Extraordinary Adventures of a Soldier Ivan Chonkin(1975) was published in the West, followed by Ivankiada(1976) and sequel Chonkin – pretender to the throne(1979). In exile, he published a scathing satire Moscow 2042(1987) and a cartoon story about the Union of Soviet Writers Hat(1988). Like Voinovich, Zinoviev published his most famous work, a bizarre mix of fiction, philosophy, and social satire called gaping heights(1976), until emigrating in 1978, but also abroad continued to write and publish a lot.

Some of the prominent writers who remained in the Soviet Union tried to resist the official omnipotence over the publication and distribution of literature. Unapproved literature began to appear in "samizdat" in the early 1960s, and the circulation of "uncensored" reprints increased significantly after the trial of Sinyavsky and Daniel. Other writers, as was said, published in "tamizdat" (i.e., abroad); in particular, G.N. Vladimov, whose story Faithful Ruslan, depicting Soviet reality, seen through the eyes of a dog from the former camp guard, was published in the West in 1975. The most famous example is the Metropol almanac, which collected works by both well-known and novice authors. In 1979, the Soviet censorship did not allow this collection to be printed, and it was defiantly published in the West. As a result of the scandal that arose, one of the most prominent participants in the almanac, the prose writer V.P. Aksenov, was forced to emigrate. Abroad, he published such significant works as Burn(1980) and Crimea Island (1981).

Although the “period of stagnation” emasculated literature, noteworthy works continued to be published in the Soviet Union well into the Brezhnev era. Since the 1950s, a group of “villagers” has gained more and more weight in Soviet literature. Their works depicted the woeful life of the Russian countryside; they were full of longing for the past and were distinguished by their propensity to mythologize the Russian peasantry. The leading representatives of this group were F.A. Abramov, V.G. Rasputin, V.I. Belov and V.P. Astafiev. Some writers have focused on the life of the urban intelligentsia. Yu.V. Trifonov attracted attention with novels that explore the "bourgeoisization" of the intelligentsia and a complex of moral problems associated with Stalin's repressions and their consequences (novel waterfront house, 1976). Like Trifonov, A.G. Bitov chose the intelligentsia as his collective character. He continued to publish in his homeland in the 1970s, but the main thing from his then works, a novel of polysyllabic structure Pushkin House, could not be fully printed in the Soviet Union until the era of perestroika. He appeared in the West in 1978. Kataev most consistently planted modernism in Russian literature of the 1960s-1970s, with books of memoirs holy well(1966) and oblivion herb(1967), who began publishing his, as he put it, "Movist" works, which he wrote and published until his death.

By the beginning of the 1980s, Russian literature was divided into two communities - émigrés and Soviet writers. The panorama of legal literature within the Soviet Union dimmed when many prominent writers such as Trifonov, Kataev, and Abramov died in the early years of the decade, and there was literally no evidence of new talent emerging in print. A significant exception was T.N. Tolstaya, whose first story On the golden porch printed one of the Leningrad magazines in 1983; a collection under the same title was published in 1987. Her second collection, Sleepwalker in the fog, published in English in the USA in 1991.

New Russian Literature. The rise to power in 1985 of MS Gorbachev and the subsequent era of "glasnost" in the Soviet press radically transformed Russian literature. The first of the previously banned works to enter the press were the works written “on the table” by officially “acceptable” Soviet writers. Quite noticeable was the novel by A. Rybakov Children of the Arbat(1987), which touched on the painful topic of the connection between the assassination of S.M. Kirov in 1934 and the beginning of the Stalinist repressions. Publication Doctor Zhivago Pasternak in 1988 opened the way to print for other, previously "unacceptable" works, for example, E.I. Zamyatin, whose novel is a dystopia We was also published in 1988. It was not until 1989 that the last barriers collapsed, allowing the writings of living émigrés and dissident writers to enter the press, including excerpts from Gulag Archipelago Solzhenitsyn.

By the end of the 1980s, ideological confrontation was growing in literature, expressed openly in literary criticism and journalistic articles published in literary periodicals. Publicism of Nikolai Shmelev, Igor Klyamkin, Vasily Selyunin, Yuri Burtin, Vadim Kozhinov, literary-critical articles by Yuri Karyakin, Natalia Ivanova, Vladimir Lakshin, Alla Latynina, Stanislav Rassadin, Benedikt Sarnov, Stanislav Kunyaev and others are widely discussed. two directions: liberal-democratic (“Znamya”, “ New world”, “October”, “Friendship of Peoples”, “Star”, “Neva”, “Literary Gazette”, “Volga”, “Ural”, as well as “Moscow News”, “Spark”) and national-patriotic (“Our contemporary”, “Moscow”, “Literary Russia”, “Moscow writer”). The controversy becomes fierce. The Pravda newspaper publishes a conciliatory article On the culture of discussion(1987), but the literary and ideological situation is getting out of control of the party. At a meeting with figures of science and art, MS Gorbachev denounces the hostility of the discussions and tries to stop the split.

Literature remains a significant socio-political force. Writers Viktor Astafyev, Vasil Bykov, Yuri Voronov, Oles Gonchar, Sergei Zalygin and others have been nominated as candidates for people's deputies. A committee "Writers in support of perestroika" ("April") is being created. Its working council includes A. Gerber, I. Duel, A. Zlobin, S. Kaledin, V. Kornilov, A. Kurchatkin, A. Latynina, Y. Moritz, N. Panchenko, A. Pristavkin.

The circulation of periodicals continues to grow. The circulation of Novy Mir by the beginning of 1989 reached 1,595,000 copies; circulation of "Friendship of Peoples" 1170 thousand; Znamya 980 thousand; "Neva" 675 thousand, "Stars" 210 thousand, "Literaturnaya gazeta" 6267 thousand.

The publication of previously forbidden texts continues Zheleznaya women N. Berberova, Mahogany B. Pilnyak, diaries of I. Babel and G. Ivanov, stories by V. Tendryakov, V. Voinovich, S. Lipkin, letters of M. Bulgakov, stories by V. Shalamov, documents related to the fate of A. Akhmatova ("Friendship of Peoples") ; memoirs of N.S. Khrushchev, Vyach. Sun. Ivanov, letters of N.A. Zabolotsky, poems by I. Brodsky, L. Losev, stories by G. Vladimov and An. Marchenko, stories and essays by V. Grossman (“Banner”); Gulag Archipelago A. Solzhenitsyn, Roses of the world D.Andreeva, Russian revolution B. Pasternak, anti-sex A. Platonov, poems by I. Chinnov, V. Pereleshin, N. Morshen, new prose V. Shalamov (“New World”), poems by A. Galich and A. Vvedensky, stories by V. Nabokov, diaries by E. Schwartz, prose by S. Dovlatov and V. Nekrasov (“Star”), epic novel by V. Grossman Life and destiny("October").

A new confrontation is brewing: traditional and postmodern poetics. Critics discuss the new literature on the pages of LG. At the center of discussions about "other" literature is Leonid Gabyshev ( Odlyan), Zufar Gareev ( alien birds), Sergei Kaledin ( Stroybat), Lyudmila Petrushevskaya ( New Robinsons), Alexander Kabakov ( defector), Evgeny Popov (stories), Vyacheslav Pietsukh ( New Moscow Philosophy). The literary underground actively intrudes into the official literary context, and its literary-critical comprehension begins. The almanac "Vest" publishes the full author's text of the novel by Venedikt Erofeev Moscow Petushki.

The literary situation presented in the leading literary journals is eclectic. Zinc Boys Svetlana Aleksievich are printed in "Friendship of Peoples" next to Floating Eurasia Timur Pulatov, Blue tulips Yuri Davydov with Fear Anatoly Rybakov, Viktor Krivulin with Yuly Kim and Vadim Delaunay; short story by Vladimir Kornilov Girls and ladies next to the story by Yuri Karabchievsky Life of Alexander Zilber. In the "New World" "late prose" by Ruslan Kireev and Songs of the Eastern Slavs Ludmila Petrushevskaya, Daughters of Light Irina Emelyanova and poems by Vladimir Sokolov against the background Nomenclatures M. Voslensky, articles by Marietta Chudakova, Alexander Tsipko, Ksenia Myalo and publications of unknown prose by Boris Pasternak; in "Questions of Literature" in full (after the publication of a fragment in "October") are printed Walks with Pushkin Abram Tertz.

Significant fluctuations in reader interest. According to the results of the subscription for 1990, Druzhba Narodov loses more than 30% of subscribers, Oktyabr 12%, Neva 6%, Znamya slightly adds (2%). Novy Mir increases the number of subscribers by 70%, Our Contemporary by 97%, Zvezda by 89%. The growth in circulation of individual publications was stimulated by the announcement of Alexander Solzhenitsyn's prose and journalism. In addition to publications In the first circle and cancer corps("New world"), August fourteenth("Star"), magazines publish articles, essays, comments directly related to the name and activities of the writer. Solzhenitsyn simultaneously publishes an article in Literaturnaya Gazeta and Komsomolskaya Pravda How us to equip Russia (1990).

In the works of writers of new generations (Viktor Erofeev, Zufar Gareev, Valeria Narbikova, Timur Kibirov, Lev Rubinstein) there is a change in repertoire, genres, rejection of the pathos of "sincerity" and "truth", an attempt to abolish "Soviet literature" (in its semi-official, rural and liberal incarnations) precisely in the “year of Solzhenitsyn” (article by Vik. Erofeev Wake on Soviet literature). “Other” literature is not monolithic, the “primogeniture” of Vik. Erofeev, Dm.A. Prigov is not recognized by L. Petrushevskaya, Vs. Nekrasov.

The ideological struggle continues around the concepts of “Russian” and “Russian-speaking” writers: “Young Guard” publishes anti-Semite materials, “Our Contemporary” positive responses to Russophobia Igor Shafarevich, Vyacheslav Vs. Ivanov publicly breaks off friendly relations with its author, and Novy Mir publishes an article by Shafarevich Two roads to one cliff an unexpected act, given the author's reputation as a xenophobe (multiplied by his own call from the pages of "Literary Russia" for active action against A. Sinyavsky after the publication of the fragment Walks with Pushkin in October").

The literary paradigm is changing: Mikhail Epshtein said this more clearly than others in his article After the future. On the New Consciousness in Literature(1991). With the open appearance of the literature of the former underground, a new confrontation is emerging: ideological and stylistic at the same time. Liberals-Westerners and traditionalists-pochvenniki continue to fiercely oppose each other. The decline in journalism, including literary criticism, is becoming apparent.

1991 is characterized by the feeling of the end of a literary period. The “new”, “different”, “alternative” literature (Sorokin, Prigov, Rubinshtein, Sapgir, etc.) is becoming more and more active. "Other" literature, occupying strategic positions, responds to the attempts of the "sixties" to disavow its success, opposing itself to the literature of the establishment.

The first Booker Prize in Russia, established in 1992, goes to Mark Kharitonov (novel Lines of Fate, or Milashevich's Chest). The same 1992 was marked by such works as Averaging plot Vladimir Makanin and South Nina Sadur, Gogol's head Anatoly Korolev and Hello, prince! Alexey Varlamov, Enter through the narrow gate Grigory Baklanov and Omon Ra Victor Pelevin, just a voice Alexey Tsvetkov and Man and his neighborhood Fazil Iskander, Battle cats Bella Ulanovskaya and Mark of the Beast Oleg Ermakov, Night time Ludmila Petrushevskaya, Friendship tender excitement Mikhail Kuraev, Fili, platform on the right Valeria Piskunova, Cursed and killed Viktor Astafiev, Resident's Notes Lipkin seeds, Evening after work Valeria Zolotukhi, Sonechka Lyudmila Ulitskaya, stories by Mikhail Butov, tricks Alexander Borodin.

There is a redistribution of literary space. New publications of modern "classics" (Iskander, Bitov, Makanin) are received without enthusiasm, long articles in thick magazines are devoted to postmodernist prose. There are also two strategies (also alternative to each other) in the "new", "different" prose. On the one hand, there is postmodern literature, which includes Sots Art and Conceptualism (D.Galkovsky, A.Korolev, A.Borodynya, Z.Gareev). On the other hand, within the same generation, the aesthetics of traditionalism revives and grows stronger (A. Dmitriev, A. Varlamov, A. Slapovsky, O. Ermakov, P. Aleshkovsky, M. Butov, V. Yanitsky and others). "Project 1992" can be called the idea of ​​Felix Rosiner to create Encyclopedia of Soviet Civilization, the task of which is to fix the “factology and mythology of the disappearing world” (the project was announced in “LG”, No. 37).

The October confrontation between the executive and legislative authorities in October 1993 provoked a new outbreak of civil activity of writers. The ambiguous position in which a significant part of the creative intelligentsia found itself (calling the authorities for decisive action would mean justifying violence) brought an end to the "romance" of writers with the authorities. An almost two-century plot in which two forces acted - power and rulers of thoughts, is coming to an end. The beginning of the process of professional differentiation is indicated by the journals of a new type that emerged the day before and during 1993, New Literary Review, De Visu.

From the positional statements of critics of different generations, one can make up a whole spectrum of “attraction repulsion”, “acceptance rejection” of the general situation of what some see as the “collapse of the cultural context” (I. Rodnyanskaya), and the other as an exciting construction of a new context (N. Klimontovich).

Critics state the "confusion and lethargy" of the novel the day before the day before Evgeny Popov, one of the first remakes of not Soviet, but Russian classics; praise the first novel by debutant Mikhail Shishkin All waiting for one night, recreating with undoubted brilliance the classic novel of the 19th century; they rely on faceless epigonism (“Samples of Russian realism are too famous and too high for a writer who has set foot on this path to have the right to be proud of his selfhood”), contemptuously stigmatize V. Pelevin and V. Sharov, D. Galkovsky and Vl. Sorokin. The dissonance of critics paradoxically testifies to the vitality of the new literature. In 1993, the Glagol publishing house released a two-volume book by Yevgeny Kharitonov, a violator of not only aesthetic taboos. The event of 1994 was the novel by Georgy Vladimov General and his army, crowned in next year Booker laurels.

The battle between realists and postmodernists is captured on the pages of newspapers and literary magazines. The brightest of the "sixties" choose the position of the aesthetic rearguard.

After the collapse of a single, seemingly monolithic system, after a five-year ideological confrontation between “national patriots” and “democrats”, the subsequent division of the literary field into two unequal parts and playing on each field separately, finally, after a shocking showdown of relations already within one’s own circle, the time comes when it becomes impossible to talk about a single array of "Russian literature" (although after the merger of the literature of the emigrant and the literature of the metropolis, it was precisely this desired unity that was found). From 1995, one can rather see parallel “literatures” in Russian literature, a plurality of formations, each of which has within itself a set of means necessary for an autonomous existence. The fragmentation and disintegration characterizing the previous stage, the confrontation and the strategy of mutual destruction are completed by 1995 with a cautiously independent coexistence. There is little in common between the melodrama of V. Astafiev So I want to live(“Znamya”, No. 4) and phantasmagoria last hero A. Kabakov ("Banner", No. 910). Moral and psychological prose of G. Baklanov ( And then the looters come Znamya, No. 5; In a place of light, in a green place, in a place of peace Znamya, No. 10) and S. Zalygin’s grotesque ( namesakes"New World", No. 4). The poetics of common places Avalanches V. Tokareva (“New World”, No. 10) and strained philosophy Arms V. Pietsukha (“Friendship of Peoples”, No. 9). Between violent romance Brothers A. Slapovsky (“Znamya”, No. 11) and the most traditional birth A. Varlamov ("New World", No. 4). Between the extended metaphor Shouldn't I regret... V. Sharov ("Banner", No. 12) and a remake crows Y. Kuvaldina ("New World", No. 6). There is only one thing in common: as a result of editorial selection, they saw the light in one time and in a single space of journal prose.

Solzhenitsyn publishes stories in Novy Mir, Bitov publishes chapters of a new novel in the domestic Playboy. Publishing houses are gradually strengthening their positions in modern literature, publishing books by new authors (Vagrius, Limbus-press, Ivan Limbach Publishing House, Pushkin Fund, New Literary Review).

In 1995, notes, diaries, memoirs, "stories" are clearly in the lead. trepanation of the skull Sergei Gandlevsky causes a lively literary discussion. The fate of a generation becomes the collective hero of Gandlevsky. Openness and frankness, confession and sincerity are a special feature of the new literary stage. Liberation from irony is also read in twenty sonnets to Sasha Zapoeva Timur Kibirov ("Banner", No. 9), in Album for stamps Andrei Sergeev (“Friendship of Peoples”, No. 78), awarded the Booker Prize.

In the philological mega-genre, which combines commentary with quoted texts and his own prose, Mikhail Bezrodny appears in 1995 (New Literary Review, No. 12). Essayism adjoins prose faction. The new Russian essay is character-based the plot, as it should be in an essay, is the development of thought, and the actions of the characters are, as it were, an experiment, a calvary of an idea ( Return from nowhere M. Kharitonova). Heroes are personifications of the author's reflections, sometimes more, sometimes less successful. Almost always boring: this is not an assessment, but the quality of an essayistic voluminous large-format prose.

In the mid-1990s, the exact opposite of faction became an active genre platform what is called fiction, artistic prose in the traditional sense of the word: novels, novellas and stories full of fantastic grotesque, from Onliria Anatoly Kim before last hero Alexander Kabakov.

The general crisis experienced by Russian literature in the post-Soviet space can be described as an identity crisis. Soviet literature has ended, anti-Soviet literature has exhausted its pathos, and Soviet literature has found itself in the most difficult position. Especially those writers who are ethnically, say, Abkhazian (Iskander), Korean (Kim), Kyrgyz (Aitmatov), ​​but, without identifying themselves with the “Soviet” world, were brought up and became writers within Russian culture. Hence the special complexity of their position in the literary world today with the ever-increasing influence of writers of other schools and groups: from the neo-traditionalists Andrei Dmitriev, with his By the turn of the river and closed book, and Peter Aleshkovsky, with adventurous and historical Vasily Chigrintsev, to the postmodernists Vladimir Sharov and Nina Sadur. This crisis manifested itself most clearly in the novel Brand of Cassandra Ch. Aitmatova, Pshade Fazil Iskander, catechumens Andrey Bitov, The village of centaurs Anatoly Kim.

Freed from the role of the ruler of thoughts, literature freed itself from many non-literary duties by the end of the 1990s, it became clear how willingly it engaged in self-reflection. To use the term of the winner of the Booker and Antibooker Prizes (established by Nezavisimaya Gazeta) essayist Alexander Goldstein, "the literature of existence" reigned in the genre repertoire. Endless dead end Dmitry Galkovsky, trepanation of the skull Sergei Gandlevsky, Excitement Andrey Bitov, Notes of a Literary Man Vyacheslav Kuritsyn, B.B. and etc., as well as Glorious end of inglorious generations Anatoly Naiman, book by Evgeny Rein I'm bored without Dovlatov constitute the main interest of the literature of the late 1990s.

Total memoirization, museification, attraction to the genre of a kind of "phone book", reference book, dictionary, encyclopedia ( BGA Mikhail Prorokov, Questionnaire Alexey Slapovsky) testify to the completion of the stage of cultural history, which allows the writer to speak from two positions, two voices: a participant-witness and an interpreter. At the same time, prose is rethinking Russian history in a fictional form through the metaphorization of the historical process ( old girl Vladimir Sharov, Boris and Gleb Yuri Buida). Subjected to impartial socio-psychological analysis modern society in the novel by Vladimir Makanin Underground, or Hero of our time(1998), Victor Pelevin puts a grotesque mirror before the grimaces of modernity (novel Generation P, 1999). Writers try to sum up the results of the outgoing decade in fantasy (Andrey Stolyarov, lark) and eschatological (Alexei Varlamov, Dome) novels.

Circulations of literary magazines are falling, but new ones are springing up. periodicals("Postscriptum"). Publishing houses, with few exceptions, print mass (Dotsenko, Marinina, Pushkov, and others) literature. Prize structures are emerging: Booker, Pushkin Prize, Antibooker, many magazine prizes, Severnaya Palmyra, since 1998 the Apollon Grigoriev Prize as it was called by critics who in 1998 established their own Academy of Russian Modern Literature. Literary criticism and literary journalism are actively published in newspapers (Nezavisimaya, Obshchaya, Kommersant, Izvestiya). The Literaturnaya Gazeta is losing its popularity and influence.

MIKHAIL VASILIEVICH LOMONOSOV ALEXANDER SERGEEVICH GRIBOEDOV ANTON PAVLOVICH CHEKHOV AT LEV NIKOLAEVICH TOLSTOY (Crimea, 1909). Photo by S.A. Tolstoy. MIKHAIL ALEKSANDROVICH SHOLOKHOV, vol. 12. M., 1979
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