Map of the world by forms of economic integration. Types and forms of integration. The concept of horizontal integration

The definition of the concept of integration (based on the Latin integration - connection) can be given as the process of combining parts into a whole. Hence it follows that economic integration- this is the association of economic entities, the deepening of their interaction, the development of ties between them. Economic integration manifests itself in the expansion and deepening of production and technological ties, the sharing of resources, the pooling of capital, the creation of favorable conditions for each other to carry out economic activities, and the removal of mutual barriers. Economic integration is characteristic feature modern stage world economy, which at the end of the 20th century became a powerful tool for the accelerated and harmonious development of regional economies and increasing the competitiveness in the world market of countries participating in integration groups.

Economic integration takes place both between enterprises, firms, companies, corporations, and at the level of national economies of entire countries, that is, international economic integration is considered as a three-level model. At the micro level, i.e. at the corporate level, when individual companies enter into direct economic relations, deploy integration processes. At the national level, the participating countries voluntarily transfer a number of political and economic functions. At the interstate level, when the purposeful activity of the state contributes to the integration processes of the interweaving of labor and capital within a particular group of countries, it ensures the functioning of special integration tools.

International economic integration is a process of economic interaction between countries, leading to convergence of economic mechanisms, taking the form of interstate agreements and coordinated by interstate bodies. Between the countries participating in labor, there is a more intensive exchange of goods, services, capital, labor. As a result, national economies “penetrate” each other, many different phases of scientific, technical, industrial, investment, financial and commercial activities are intertwined.

At present, international trade has become increasingly complemented by various forms international movement factors of production (capital, labor and technology), as a result of which not only finished goods began to move abroad, but also the factors of its production. The profit contained in the price of the goods began to be created not only within national borders, but also abroad. The natural result of the development of international trade in goods and services and the international movement of factors of production was economic integration.

There are several main types of integration associations: free trade zone, customs union, common market, economic union, political union.

Classical forms of international economic integration: free trade zones, when trade restrictions between the countries participating in the integration association are canceled and, first of all, are reduced or canceled altogether customs duties; a customs union, when, along with the abolition of foreign trade restrictions, a single customs tariff is established and a single foreign trade policy is pursued in relation to third countries; the common market, marked by the signing of an agreement covering the "four freedoms" of crossing state borders for goods, services, capital and people; economic and monetary union, when agreements on a free trade zone, a customs union and a common market are supplemented by agreements on the conduct of a common economic and monetary policy, and supranational institutions for managing an integration association are introduced.

Free trading zone(Free trade area) is a type of international integration in which customs duties, taxes and fees are abolished in the participating countries, as well as quantitative restrictions in mutual trade in accordance with international treaty. This is a deeper type of integration than preferential agreements. Each participating country retains the right to independently and independently determine the trade regime in relation to third countries. In most cases, the terms of the free trade zone apply to all goods except agricultural products. A free trade zone can be coordinated by a small interstate secretariat located in one of the member countries, but usually they do without it, and the countries agree on the main parameters of their development at periodic meetings of the heads of the relevant departments. Customs borders and posts controlling the origin of goods crossing their state borders are maintained between the participating countries.

North American Free Trade Area - NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement - NAFTA) - an agreement between the United States, Canada and Mexico, which entered into force in 1994. The agreement provides for the phased elimination of customs tariffs and non-tariff barriers for both industrial and agricultural goods, protection of intellectual property rights, production general rules for investment, the liberalization of trade in services and the creation of an effective mechanism for resolving trade disputes between participating countries;

European Free Trade Association - in 1960 an agreement was signed between Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland;

Baltic Free Trade Area - an agreement between Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, signed in 1993 (lost force in 2004, from the date of entry of the participating countries into the European Union);

Central European Free Trade Agreement - an agreement between Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and the Czech Republic, signed in 1992 (lost force in 2004, from the date of entry of the participating countries into the European Union);

Australian-New Zealand Deepening Trade Agreement economic ties- signed by these two countries in 1983;

Free trade zone between Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela - the agreement was signed by the listed countries in 1992;

The Bangkok Agreement is an agreement between Bangladesh, India, the Republic of Korea, Laos, Sri Lanka, signed in 1993.

A customs union is an agreement between two or more states (a form of interstate agreement) on the abolition of customs duties in trade between them, a form of collective protectionism from third countries.

The Customs Union also provides for the formation of a "single customs territory".

Usually the member countries of the Customs Union agree on the creation of interstate bodies that coordinate the implementation of a coordinated foreign trade policy. As a rule, this consists in holding periodic meetings of ministers in charge of the relevant departments, which in their work rely on a permanent interstate Secretariat.

In fact, we are talking about a form of interstate integration, involving the creation of supranational bodies. In this regard, the Customs Union is a much more rigid form of integration than, for example, the Free Trade Area.

The common market is a form of economic integration of countries, involving the free movement of goods, works and services, as well as factors of production: capital, labor resources across the borders of countries that are members of the common market.

The common market was one of the stages of the integration processes in Europe. The Common Market Agreement was signed by six European countries (Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) in Rome in 1957 (Treaty of Rome). The common market in Europe emerged from the positive experience of the European Coal and Steel Community. Later in Europe, the deepening of integration processes led to the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Union (EU).

economic union-- the most complex form of interstate economic integration, which involves the implementation of a unified economic and monetary policy, the creation of a system for regulating socio-political processes, the coordination of national tax, anti-inflation, currency and other measures; in order to accelerate the formation of the economic union, the European Union in December 1991 decided in Maastricht to accelerate the implementation of the above goals and introduce a single euro currency with the formation of a single issuing central bank

Political union-- the highest stage of regional integration -- involves the transformation of a single market space into an integral economic and political entity; in the most in general terms we can talk about the emergence of a new multinational subject of world economic and international political relations, which speaks on behalf of all participants in this union.

International economic integration has forms that are adequate to it as a special economic process.

Its specific forms, which change as integration deepens, are:

• - organization of cooperation through the creation of joint bodies to coordinate economic development; state-organized free trade zones (which should be distinguished from joint venture zones);
• - common markets for goods and services (including transport, information, etc.);
• - common capital and labor markets; interstate banks and other interstate structures in the real sector of the economy.

International economic integration and its forms

The development of integration processes is the most important characteristic of the modern world economy. The processes of international economic integration noticeably intensified in the second half of the 20th century. in various regions of the world.

International economic integration (MEI) can be defined as a process of economic and political unification of countries based on the development of deep stable relationships and division of labor between national economies, the interaction of their reproductive structures at various levels and in various forms.

At the micro level, this process follows the path of interaction between their reproductive entities (enterprises, firms), which contribute to the interpenetration and merging of national economies. At the macro level - on the basis of the development of international trade in goods and services and the growth of the international movement of factors of production (capital, labor and technology), which take the form of interstate agreements to coordinate national strategies for economic and political development.

MPEI implies not only conscious joint actions of the subjects of the integration process to strengthen economic interdependence, but also the presence, in certain cases, of supranational management and regulation bodies in the form of various institutional structures.

MPEI assumes comparability of the levels of technical and economic development and the degree of market maturity of the integrating countries, the commonality of specific economic and other interests and development problems. Practice shows that the prerequisites for the integration interaction of individual countries entering it are the more favorable, the higher the overall level of their technical and economic development and trade and economic ties between them.

For example, countries with an agrarian-raw material profile that produce not so much complementary as competing with each other food products, fuel, raw materials, etc. they have little interest in developing mutual exchange and are looking for connections with more developed foreign partners. For the same reason, market integration has little prospect for countries at the early stages of industrialization, whose production structure is characterized by a high share of extractive industries and primary processing agricultural and mineral raw materials. In the main part of their exports, they act in relation to each other as rivals fighting for foreign markets. Therefore, their domestic markets do not open towards each other, but, on the contrary, are most often fenced off by customs barriers.

International economic integration is inherently regional in nature, it unites mainly neighboring ones. Territorially adjacent states. Integration associations are characterized by regional differences in the intensity of mutual attraction and merging of national economies, in the degree of well-established institutional mechanisms, as well as differences in the levels of integration development, i.e. in the degree of integration of national economies.

MPEI is a difficult, uneven, contradictory and lengthy process, since it takes place within the framework of cultural and historical types of society; Each country has its own historical identity, its own individual problems and interests. With the gradual formation of an interstate integration community at the level of a region (subregion), the comparability of the ethnic-religious and socio-cultural mentalities of the peoples of the states entering into such interaction is of great importance. The most productive is the activity of those interstate associations and unions whose members belong either to the same or to comparable types of civilization, since in this case a purely economic rapprochement is supplemented by a common historical, cultural and religious roots, which leads to the formation of a new space not only economic. But also universal, humanitarian solidarity.

In countries that have created integration associations, as a rule, there are positive shifts in the economy:

1 - as a result of integration, transaction costs are reduced and the pace of mutual trade is accelerated;

2 - increasing competition between manufacturers from different countries restrains price increases, stimulates the improvement of the quality of goods and the creation of new technologies, causes a reduction in relatively inefficient industries;

3 - integration usually leads to an influx of foreign investment, since corporations from countries that are not included in the association seek to retain a certain segment of the market, closed by a common customs barrier. Through the creation of enterprises within the integrating countries.

Integration associations are usually distinguished by the depth of the processes occurring in them.

The simplest form of economic integration is Free Trade Zone (FTA)) within the framework of which a regime of international trade in goods is maintained free from customs and quantitative restrictions. At the same time, each FTA member country has its own foreign trade tariff in relation to countries that are not included in this zone. FTA agreements are usually based on the principle of mutual moratorium on customs duty levels, which means that it is virtually impossible to unilaterally raise customs duties or introduce new trade barriers.

A more perfect form of economic integration is Customs Union (CU), along with the functioning of a free trade zone, the establishment of a single foreign trade tariff and the implementation of a common foreign trade policy in relation to third countries. Unlike an FTA, a customs union has more reliable protection for domestic producers, because it blocks its external borders with a customs barrier, while a free trade zone can be "attacked from the rear" by third countries and effectively use differences in the levels of external customs tariffs. However, in both cases, interstate relations concern only the sphere of exchange and provide the participating countries with the same conditions in the development of mutual trade and financial settlements. The functioning of the Customs Union does not imply a one-time unification of the customs tariff policy for the entire spectrum of produced and consumed goods. Within the framework of the CU, such large areas as the defense industry, individual energy sectors, etc. remain outside the scope of the general tariff policy. Taking into account some sectoral limitations, the CU is sometimes called the sectoral stage of integration.

The next form of integration strategy is Common Market (OR) goods, functioning on the basis of customs union, but significantly supplemented by an agreed sectoral policy, including in the field of scientific and technical research. To regulate activities within the framework of the Public Market, special supranational institutions are created, which involve the transfer of part of the national sovereignty of states, or simply interstate institutions, various financial structures and funds, designed to coordinate the economic policies of member states.

international economic integration regional

A quantitatively higher level of integration is Single internal market (EUR), ensuring not only the free movement of goods, but also the free movement of services, capital and labor. The EUR assumes a more perfect activity of supranational bodies of control and management in the direction of harmonizing the entire spectrum of economic policy (including social policy), taking into account the unification of the national legislations of the member states. The completion of the EVR means the transition to highest form integration: economic and monetary union.

Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) are complementary and integral parts of a single process. The construction of the Economic and Monetary Union is a set of parallel events, the main purpose of which is to create a single economic, monetary, financial, legal and information space. On the one hand, the EMU assumes close coordination of the economic policies of the member states on the basis of recommendations and control by supranational bodies, with strict observance of the quantitative indicators of the state of the economy of the member countries established under interstate agreements in order to bring their economic and economic levels closer together. social development(economic convergence). On the other hand, it implies the establishment of a firmly fixed exchange rate of the participating countries, the transition to a single monetary policy and the creation of an independent system of central banks headed by a bank endowed with the exclusive right to issue a unified currency.

The final stage of integration construction is the creation on the basis of EMU Political Union (PS), the result of which is the transition of the participating countries to a common foreign policy and common security policy, the introduction of a single citizenship and the rights of citizens of the Member States to elect and be elected to both national and supranational authorities, regardless of their place of residence on the territory of the PS. Cooperation in the field of justice and internal affairs is being implemented, activities in the field of culture, education and protection of the rights and interests of all citizens are significantly expanding.

It must be emphasized that these political and legal forms are means of achieving integration and are not identical with integration itself. Some of them originated and were widely used more than a century before the beginning of the era of regional integration. At the same time, the existence of free trade zones, customs unions does not yet mean that the degree of real merging of national economies included in this integration association is inconspicuously higher than between them and the economies of countries not included in it. Calculations show that the joint participation of two or more countries in one or another institutional form of integration does not always determine the actual degree of integration of their national economies.

An institutionalized integration union is only one of the elements of a lot of planned work, the process of which is the interweaving and merging of national economic complexes. This or that form of interstate agreement can only constitute an objectively existing, real desire for integration. If a real ground for intensive economic interaction at the micro level has formed under the institutional structure, integration receives an additional incentive in the form of an official status. If this ground does not exist, then, despite interstate cooperation, integration will remain on paper.

Bibliography

2. "World economy. Economics of foreign countries." Textbook author. Kolisova V.P.; M.N. Osmova. Moscow, ed. "Flint". 2000.

The Belarusian leader is convinced of the expediency of "pairing the capabilities of countries with major international projects, primarily with the economic belt of the Silk Road." He reminded the participants of the meeting that his country is already actively participating in it, developing the Chinese-Belarusian industrial park "Great Stone". In addition, Lukashenka is confident that a broad dialogue between the Commonwealth and the Eurasian Economic Union will also contribute to stable relations between the CIS states.

The President of the Republic of Belarus proposed to instruct the Executive Secretary of the CIS and the Chairman of the Board of the Eurasian economic commission intensify preparations for signing an updated memorandum on deepening interaction between the EEC and the CIS Executive Committee. "This document will allow the Commonwealth partners to promptly and fully receive information on the development of Eurasian integration, to objectively assess the prospects for building up cooperation in priority areas," he stated.

Lukashenka urged the CIS leaders to unite and take joint action "against the background of the destruction of the existing system of international trade", stressing that strengthening economic cooperation remains an invariable priority for Minsk in the Commonwealth. At the same time, he noted that world market relations are increasingly losing signs of civilized interaction between countries.

"At the instigation of the West, the system of international trade created for decades is being categorically, unilaterally destroyed. The use of non-legal mechanisms is becoming the norm and puts our economies in a vulnerable position," the speaker noted. "On the one hand, we must join forces to jointly protect interests in the global market. On the other hand, we must intensify mutual trade and investment, expand industrial cooperation. Respond by consolidating and increasing the role of the Commonwealth as a regional player," Lukashenka said.

The President stated with regret that, in his opinion, it was not yet possible to fully formulate a theoretical model and create a practical strategy for economic integration in the CIS. He took the initiative to update the economic block in the Concept for the Further Development of the CIS, which, in his words, “can become an ideological basis for a more complete use of the scientific, production and investment potential within the Commonwealth. It is necessary to reasonably link this with the development of the Strategy for the Economic Development of the CIS for the period after 2020".

According to the Belarusian leader, both the concept and the strategy should include modern landmarks, identify common points of economic growth.

There are currently two trends in the global economy. On the one hand, the integrity of the world economy, its globalization is increasing, which is caused by the development of economic relations between countries, trade liberalization, the creation of modern communication and information systems, world technical standards and norms. This process is especially manifested through the activities of TNCs.

On the other hand, there is an economic rapprochement and interaction of countries at the regional level, large regional integration structures are being formed -

developing towards the creation of relatively independent centers of the world economy.

1. Essence and levels of integration

International economic integration - it is a process of economic and political unification of countries based on the development of deep stable relationships and the division of labor between national economies, the interaction of their economies at various levels and in various forms.

At the micro level, this process goes through the interaction of individual firms in neighboring countries on the basis of the formation of various economic relations between them, including the creation of branches abroad. At the interstate (macro) level, integration occurs on the basis of the formation of economic associations of states and the harmonization of national policies.

The rapid development of intercompany relations gives rise to the need for interstate (and sometimes supranational) regulation aimed at ensuring the free movement of goods, services, capital and labor between countries within a given region, at coordinating and conducting joint economic, monetary, scientific and technical, social, foreign and defense policy. As a result, integral regional economic complexes are created with a single currency, infrastructure, common economic tasks, financial funds, common supranational and interstate governing bodies.

2. Factors determining integration processes

Economic integration is based on a number of objective factors, among which the most important place is occupied by:

Globalization of economic life;

Deepening the international division of labor;

A global scientific and technological revolution in its nature;

All these factors are interdependent.

In modern conditions, the development of sustainable economic ties between countries and especially between their firms on the basis of the international division of labor has taken on a global character. The increasing openness of national economies, the unfolding scientific and technological revolution, international trade, the migration of capital, modern systems transport, communications and information contributed to the transition of the process of internationalization of economic life to a level at which a global network of interconnections was formed in the integral world economy with the active participation in it of the bulk of firms in most countries of the world.

The globalization of economic life is most intense at the regional level, since most of the firms have contacts with firms in neighboring countries. Therefore, one of the main trends in the globalization of the world economy is the formation around a particular country or group of the most developed countries of integration zones, large economic megablocks.

For example:

§ USA - on the American continent,

§ Japan and the USA - in the Pacific region,

§ leading Western European countries - in Western Europe.

In turn, within the framework of regional integration blocs, subregional centers of integration are sometimes formed, which is especially typical for the Pacific region.

The international division of labor continues to deepen.

Under the influence of scientific and technical progress, the substantive, technological division of labor at the intra-company and inter-country levels is intensifying. The interrelation (interdependence) of producers of individual countries is growing on the basis of not only the exchange of labor results, but also the organization of joint production on the basis of cooperation, combination, complementarity of production and technological processes. The intensive development of cooperation between firms from different countries has led to the emergence of large international production and investment complexes, the initiators of which are most often TNCs.

The factor stimulating integration processes is the increased openness of national economies.

The characteristic features of an open economy are:

Deep involvement of the country's economy in the system of world economic relations;

Weakening or complete elimination of restrictions on cross-country movement of goods, capital, labor;

Convertibility of national currencies.

The development of interstate economic integration is facilitated by the presence of a number of prerequisites. Thus, integration processes are most productive between countries that are approximately at the same level of economic development and have homogeneous economic systems.

The geographical proximity of integrating countries located in the same region and having a common border is very important. The possibility and expediency of integration is largely determined by the presence between the countries of historically established and sufficiently strong economic ties. Of great importance is the community of economic interests and problems, the solution of which by joint efforts can be much more effective than separately.

Obstacles to the integration of developing countries:

§ integrating countries poorly complement each other's economies, which hinders the integration process; it follows that structural changes are needed;

§ underdeveloped infrastructure;

§ Differences in levels and development potentials;

§ political instability.

3. Forms of international economic integration

The simplest and most common form of economic integration is Free trading zone, within the framework of which trade restrictions between the participating countries are abolished, and, above all, customs tariffs and quotas. At the same time, in relations with third countries, each has its own policy. The creation of free trade zones enhances competition in the domestic market between national and foreign manufacturers goods, which, on the one hand, increases the risk of bankruptcy, and on the other hand, is an incentive to improve production and introduce innovations. The abolition of customs duties and non-tariff restrictions concerns, as a rule, industrial goods; for agricultural products, import liberalization is limited. This was characteristic of the EU and is now observed in the North American region and Latin America.

Another form - Customs Union- involves, along with the functioning of the free trade zone, the establishment of a single foreign trade tariff and the implementation of a single foreign trade policy in relation to third countries.

In both cases, interstate relations concern only the sphere of exchange in order to provide the participating countries with equal opportunities in the development of mutual trade and financial settlements.

The customs union is often supplemented payment union, ensuring the mutual convertibility of currencies and the functioning of a single settlement currency.

A more complex form is Common Market, which is designed to provide its participants, along with free mutual trade and a common foreign trade tariff, the complete elimination of obstacles to the movement of all factors of production, as well as the harmonization of economic policy, including the equalization of economic indicators. With the functioning of the single market, common funds for promoting social and regional development are being formed, supranational management and control bodies are being created, the legal system is being improved, i.e. there is a single economic, legal, informational space.

economic union occurs at a stage of high economic development. A coordinated (or even unified) economic policy is being pursued, and on this basis all obstacles are being removed. Interstate (suprastate) bodies are being created and at the same time major economic transformations are taking place in all participating countries.

monetary union- a form and at the same time a major component of the economic union. The salient features of a monetary union are:

Ø coordinated (joint) floating of national currencies;

Ø establishment by agreement of fixed exchange rates, which are purposefully supported by the Central Banks of the participating countries;

Ø Creation of a single regional currency;

Ø formation of a single regional bank, which is the emission center of this international currency unit.

This union takes place only in Western Europe. Only here the process of economic integration passed all the indicated stages.

Full economic integration - a single economic policy and, as a result, the unification of the legislative framework, which is carried out in the conditions of a common tax system, the existence of uniform standards, uniform labor legislation, etc.

4. Goals and consequences of integration

The goals of international economic integration depend on the form in which the integration takes place. When forming a free trade area and a customs union (these forms of integration are now the most common), the participating countries seek to ensure the expansion of the market and the creation of a favorable environment for trade among themselves, while preventing competitors from third countries from entering the market.

The European Union - the highest form of integration for a given period of time - aims to create a triune union on its territory: economic, monetary, having a single euro currency, and political. It is supposed to conduct a balanced long-term social and economic policy.

The development of economic integration undoubtedly has positive effects for the parties involved and certain negative consequences. Thus, the formation of integration blocs significantly enhances their economic potential, promotes the expansion of trade and cooperation and production ties. This is confirmed by the development of many integration groupings, including the EU, NAFTA, MERCOSUR, etc.

In addition, the economic rapprochement of countries within the regional framework creates favorable conditions for firms of the countries participating in economic integration, protecting them to a certain extent from competition from third-country firms. It also promotes the spread of advanced technology.

Further, integration interaction allows its participants to jointly solve the most acute social problems, such as equalizing the conditions for the development of the most backward regions, easing the situation on the labor market, and pursuing a scientific and technical policy, which is typical for EU member countries.

However, the interaction of national economies occurs with varying degrees of intensity, on different scales, manifesting itself more clearly in individual regions. For more backward countries, this leads to an outflow of resources (factors of production), there is a redistribution in favor of stronger partners. It should be noted that the oligopolistic collusion between the TNCs of the participating countries, which leads to higher prices.

Moreover, from time to time there are conflicts of interests of the participating countries and within the groupings.

5. Theories of international economic integration

In the theory of economic integration, there are a number of areas that differ primarily in different assessments of the integration mechanism. These are neoliberalism, corporativeism, structuralism, neo-Keynesianism, dirigiste trends, etc.

Representatives of the early neoliberalism(1950-1960) - the Swiss economist Wilhelm Repke and the Frenchman Maurice Allais understood the creation of a single market space on the scale of several countries, the functioning of which is based on the action of spontaneous market forces and free competition, regardless of the economic policies of states and existing national and international legal acts. The intervention of the state in the sphere of international economic relations leads, in their opinion, to such negative phenomena as inflation, imbalance in international trade, and disruption of payments.

However, the development of international economic integration, the formation of regional interstate unions with the active participation of states, showed the failure of the views of the early neoliberals. The representative of late neoliberalism, the American scientist Bela Balassa, believed that economic integration leads to a more intensive participation of the state in economic affairs. Much attention was paid to the evolution of integration taking place on the basis of both economic and political processes.

In the mid 60s. there was a direction corporateism, whose representatives - American economists Sidney Rolf and Eugene Rostow have identified a new core of integration. They believed that, in contrast to the market mechanism and state regulation, the functioning of TNCs is able to ensure the integration of the international economy, its rational and balanced development.

Representatives structuralism- Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal and others were critical of the idea of ​​a complete liberalization of the movement of goods, capital and labor in an integrated space, believing that the free functioning of the market mechanism can lead to certain disproportions in the development and distribution of production, deepening income inequality. Economic integration was considered by them as a deep process of structural transformations in the economies of integrating countries, as a result of which a qualitatively new integrated space, a more perfect economic organism, emerges. In their opinion, the poles of the development of integration are large firms, industrial companies, entire industries.

In the 70s. ideas have become widespread neo-Keynesianism, whose representatives - the American economist Richard Cooper and others - in particular, believed that the central problem of international economic cooperation is how to protect the diverse benefits of broad international economic cooperation from restrictions and at the same time maintain the maximum degree of freedom for each country. Neo-Keynesians put forward two possible options for the development of international integration: the first - integration with the subsequent loss of national freedom, but the obligatory coordination of economic goals and policies; the second is integration with the condition of maintaining as much national autonomy as possible. Assuming that none of these options can be represented in pure form They considered it necessary to combine them optimally by coordinating the domestic and foreign economic policies of the integrating parties.

A variation of the neo-Keynesian direction is dirigisme, whose theorists also deny the decisive role of the market mechanism in the integration processes and believe that the creation and functioning of international economic structures is possible on the basis of the development by the integrating parties of a common economic policy, the harmonization of social legislation, and the coordination of credit policy. This direction of economic thought is represented by the Dutch scientist Jan Tinbergen.

Domestic economists have played a significant role in the development of the theory of international economic integration. N.P. Shmelev connects the origins of world integration processes with the needs of the modern international division of labor, the development of scientific and technological progress, the deepening of international specialization and cooperation of economic structures of individual countries. He considers the most important characteristics of integration to be the interstate regulation of economic processes, the gradual formation of an integration economic complex with common proportions and a general structure of reproduction; elimination of administrative and economic barriers that impede the free movement of goods, capital and labor within the region; leveling the levels of economic development of the integrating countries.

At present, in connection with the expansion of the EU due to the entry of new countries into it, a number of models for the further development of European integration along the path of its deepening have been developed, among which the models of “gradual integration”, “Europe of concentric circles”, and “differentiated integration” stand out. The first two models are based on the idea of ​​creating in the EU a "core" of the most developed countries, around which "circles" of countries with a lesser depth of integration are formed. The model of "differentiated integration" proceeds from the fact that the geographical expansion of the EU should change the concept of integration and implies a differentiation in the speed of integration processes in different countries. Like "gradual", "differentiated" integration aims to deepen the integration processes, but at the same time eliminates the need to sign agreements and limit time. It also provides for the creation of a "core" with a different composition of participants.

6. The main integration groups of the world

Integration processes do not occur spontaneously, spontaneously, outside the framework of management by the state and interstate bodies. The formation of regional integration complexes has a contractual and legal basis. Entire groups of countries, on the basis of mutual agreements, unite into regional interstate complexes and pursue a joint regional policy in various spheres of socio-political and economic life.

Among the numerous integration groupings are:

§ in Western Europe - the EU,

§ in North America - NAFTA,

§ in the Asia-Pacific region - ASEAN,

§ in Eurasia - the CIS.

Historically, integration processes were most clearly manifested in Western Europe, where in the second half of the 20th century a single economic space of the whole region was formed, within which general conditions for reproduction were formed and a mechanism for its regulation was created. Here integration has reached its most mature forms.

6.1. The EU as the most mature integration grouping

The European Union (EU) is an association of European states participating in the process of European integration. Includes 25 countries: Belgium, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Germany, France, Denmark, Ireland, Great Britain, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Austria, Finland, Sweden, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Slovenia, Cyprus (except the southern part of the island), Malta.

· 1951–1957 – European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC);

· 1957–1967 – European Economic Community (EEC);

· 1967–1992 – European Communities (EEC, Euratom, ECSC);

· Since November 1993 – European Union. The name "European Communities" is often used to refer to all stages of the development of the EU.

6.1.1. Perestroika in the Western European way

No society could exist and develop if it did not act set of mechanisms through which urgent problems are solved, accumulated contradictions and emerging crises are periodically overcome. These mechanisms of "self-regulation" of society from time to time begin to lose flexibility, to ossify. If this process passes a critical point, after which it becomes irreversible, the social system collapses. It was in this direction that classical Western European capitalism developed in the second half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century. The First World War and the revolutions of 1917 in Russia turned out to be too weak a warning. And only the terrible experience of Hitlerism and Stalinism, World War II caused a genuine upheaval in the public consciousness of Europeans, this was also a kind of shock therapy, which helped to understand that the origins of what happened must be sought in European society itself.

The main components of perestroika in Western European fashion are as follows:

§ transition to a mixed type economy, characterized by a variety of forms of ownership with a predominance of a joint-stock form, maintaining the effectiveness of the market competition mechanism and counteracting monopolistic trends, developing the theory and practice of production management (management) at the level of enterprises and companies, creating a system of state (macroeconomic) regulation;

§ creation and institutionalization of an extensive system of regulation of social relations, primarily between labor and capital, the transition to a socially oriented economic policy and the deployment of a large-scale social policy (“welfare state”), reorientation of business from investment in technology to investment in an employee;

§ the formation of a developed democracy, characterized by the full establishment of universal suffrage, ideological and political pluralism, the development of the rule of law, the predominance of a political culture of dialogue and consensus.

The totality of the changes that have taken place in most Western European countries is so significant that it gives grounds to speak of the onset of a qualitatively new stage in the development of society, a new stage in the civilizational progress of Western Europe. The Western social system has its own problems, not simple ones.

One of the potential sources of destabilization is the occurrence two-thirds society. We are talking about a new technological revolution, which entailed another structural restructuring of the economy and the revival of mass unemployment. As a result, a new social split has emerged between the majority of the population (“two-thirds”), which somehow adapts to changes, and the rest of the “third”, sometimes doomed to odd jobs, poverty and beggary, moral degradation.

Another dangerous trend is that it is developing and apparently has not yet culminated consumer society crisis. Its essence is that the current system of production and distribution orients a person towards consumerism, at the same time undermining the priority of such a moral and social value as labor, thanks to which modern Western civilization arose.

Another threatening phenomenon is new nationalism, converted primarily against immigrants, mainly from third world countries. Almost all unskilled, dirty and unprestigious work is given to them at the mercy, but in them a significant part of the indigenous population sees second-class people, "strangers" and the culprits of all social ills. For a number of reasons, the share of immigrants in the labor force and the total population is likely to rise, and this portends a further deterioration of ethnic relations.

Nevertheless, the social system created in Western Europe has a large margin of safety. The mechanisms of its self-regulation are the product of a long historical development, they were improved in the post-war decades. In the process of this evolution, in all countries of Western Europe, the same type, socio-economic and political systems that are close in basic parameters, which greatly contributed to mutual understanding and cooperation. All this suggests that the social system existing in Western Europe will continue to be a fairly reliable foundation for the ongoing construction of the EU.

EU enlargement has both pluses and minuses. On the one hand, the resource potential of the EU is increasing due to new territories and population, the market for current members is significantly expanding, and the political status of the EU is strengthening. to- the world. On the other hand, the EU will have to make huge expenditures, in particular, an increase in budgetary spending on subsidies and transfers to new EU members. The risk of instability in the European Union will increase, as countries with a backward economic structure that require radical modernization will join. The development of integration in breadth will undoubtedly occur to the detriment of its deepening due to the reduction in spending on social, regional and structural policies pursued in the EU at the present time.

Russia's partnership with the EU was legally formalized in 1994. The Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) recognized that Russia is a country with a transitional economy. The agreement provides for the implementation of the most favored nation treatment for the parties in their foreign economic relations in the form generally accepted in international practice: expanding cooperation in numerous areas (standardization, science, technology, space, communications), expanding trade in goods and services, encouraging private investment, etc.

In order to bring the implementation of the agreements reached closer, in June 1995, an Interim Trade Agreement between Russia and the EU was signed, including articles of the PCA that did not require ratification, i.e. did not lead to a change in the laws of the states participating in the agreement. On December 1, 1997, the ATP entered into force.

The European Union is Russia's main trading partner. It accounts for 40% of its foreign trade turnover, against 5% - from the USA. Given this ratio, the dollarization of Russia's foreign economic relations is not entirely justified, and in the future the euro may dislodge the dollar from its defining position in Russia's economic relations with the EU. The admission of the euro to the domestic currency circulation can contribute to further development foreign economic relations Russia with the European Union.

In the coming years, the main task in relations with the EU will be the implementation of the PCA and the resolution of specific contentious issues in the field of trade, in particular. At the same time, the European Union believes that the necessary economic and legal prerequisites for Russia's accession to the EU have not yet matured.

6.1.2. Integration mechanism

An analysis of the long experience of the EU allows us to draw another conclusion: the community has advanced by providing a whole system political, legal, judicial, administrative and financial mechanisms. Their creation and improvement is invariably given paramount attention.

This system, which has developed in the course of the development of the EU, is based on some general principles inherent in the Western political system as a whole, but in its specific forms differs significantly from national systems. Characteristic features of the system of political, legal, judicial, administrative and financial mechanisms:

A combination of institutions of two types: interstate and supranational. Persons belonging to the bodies of the first type act as official representatives of the member states. Members of the second type of bodies are also proposed by each state, but act as independent individuals, not bound by any instructions from their governments. This dual principle of formation contributes to maintaining a balance between the interests of individual Member States and the interests of the EU as a whole;

Flexible division of competencies between EU institutions and national governments. There are three main options for the division of competencies: areas in which a common policy is implemented at the EU level (agriculture, trade, etc.); Areas of mixed competence, where EU bodies are responsible for certain areas or groups of issues, while the rest are still under the jurisdiction of national governments (regional, social, etc.); areas in which the functions of the EU are limited to coordinating the actions of member states and making recommendations (macroeconomic, policy in the field of environment etc.);

Variety of types of decisions made - from regulations and directives that are binding on national governments and all participants in the integration, to conclusions that are advisory in nature;

The primacy of EU law over the national law of the Member States within the limits determined by the content of the fundamental treaties.

The source of EU law is primarily the three treaties that established the European Communities, the EEA and the Treaty on European Union, as well as the treaties on accession to the EU of new member states.

The organizational structure of the EU reflects the principle of separation of legislative, executive and judicial functions, traditional for the Western political system, although again in very peculiar forms. The main institutions of the Union are: the European Parliament; Advice; Commission; European Court; European Council.

Departing from the order in which they are listed, it is advisable to start their characterization with the European Council, established in 1974. Convened at the level of heads of state and government at least twice a year, it decides on key issues in the life of the EU. Its decisions are not binding, but they give political impetus to the development of the EU and set the main guidelines in accordance with which the Commission and the Council of Ministers act.

The Council is a decision-making body. It meets at the level of ministers of the national governments, which is why it is sometimes referred to as the Council of Ministers. However, unlike the national councils of ministers, it performs legislative functions; its binding decisions form, together with the fundamental treaties, EU law. Another difference is that it does not have a permanent composition; in fact, there are many councils, the composition of which depends on the field of activity to which the issue under consideration belongs: the Council of Ministers of Economy, the Council of Ministers of Agriculture, the Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, etc.

A unique institution is the EU Commission (ECE), which has a supranational character. It is she who accounts for the lion's share of the daily routine work carried out by many thousands of functionaries in all fields of activity transferred to the Community level. The main thing in the work of the CES is the preparation of decisions and their implementation, including control over how they are implemented by national authorities. The Commission manages the finances of the EU - the budget and structural funds.

The European Parliament (EP) is a representative body elected since 1979 by direct universal suffrage of citizens of all member states once every five years (before that, EP deputies were elected by national parliaments). The European Parliament is the main democratic forum of peoples united in the EU. Unlike national parliaments, it is not a legislative body. Initially, he was given a mainly advisory role. Over time, the functions of the EP have been significantly expanded, and now it exercises broad control over the activities of the Commission, having, in particular, the right to pass a vote of no confidence in it, approves the EU budget and a report on its implementation, participates in the development and adoption of new legislative acts, requests and listens to the Council and the Commission on various issues of their activities. Its approval is obligatory when concluding treaties on the accession of new members to the EU and EU agreements with third countries.

The European Court of Justice plays a unique role. It is intended to ensure uniform interpretation of EU law and primacy over national laws within the jurisdiction established by the fundamental treaties. In accordance with this, it considers and regulates disagreements between member states, between them and the EU, between EU institutions, and finally, between the EU and individuals or legal entities. It also gives opinions on international agreements and preliminary hearings in cases referred to it by national courts.

The institutional system of the EU has no historical analogues. Western jurists sometimes call it a "legal nightmare", meaning that the EU combines the features of a classical international organization and a state of two types - federal and confederal. Creating and reconstructing this system on the go, the EU members were guided not by a doctrinal and often not even a political, but by a functional approach, that is, in fact, by the same common sense.

The caustic Western journalists, who tell nothing and nothing to anyone, have long ago chosen the "Brussels Eurocrats" as their target. Indeed, the cumbersome bureaucratic machine of the EU, which employs 25,000 people, operates with a creak, and it has all the features of a modern bureaucracy. Nevertheless, the complexity of this organizational structure is due to the need to reconcile the interests of both states and various social or professional groups; it was created taking into account the asymmetry of integration processes, more developed or dynamic in some areas of economic, social and political life, undeveloped or slow in others. As a result, this seemingly unthinkable hybrid system has withstood more than one frost, lives and bears weighty fruits.

Special mention should be made of such a "mechanism" of integration as the mobilization of public support for the construction of a united Europe. The leading role in this was played by the most influential political parties - Social Democratic, Christian Democratic, liberal and conservative, which, with rare exceptions, actively supported the course towards integration. Such were the positions of the majority of trade unions, all business associations, as well as the vast majority of the media, scientists and cultural figures. The Community itself also contributed to this by switching from 1979 to direct elections of the European Parliament, starting the implementation of programs for the Europeanization of school and higher education, language training, encouraging youth contacts, etc.

The first of the communities, the ECSC, was created just six years after the war, and the still fresh memory of Nazism could not but cast a shadow over the FRG. This is just an extreme example, but in general, the psychological barriers due to national egocentrism and long-standing prejudice against neighbors were quite high. They still hinder the integration processes. Nevertheless, the past decades have markedly changed mass psychology. Polls regularly conducted by Europarometer in the EU member states since 1973 consistently show a high level of support for integration: between 70-80% on average across the EU. First of all, this applies to the post-war generations, which are much more likely to perceive themselves not only as Belgians, Italians, Germans, etc., but also Europeans. This is one of the most important results of the practice of "European construction".

6.2. Features of integration in the North American region

The entire territory of North America is a free trade zone, officially called the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which unites the United States, Canada and Mexico and has been operating since 1994. For a long time, integration processes took place here at the corporate and industry levels and were not connected with the state and interstate regulation. At the state level, the US-Canadian free trade agreement was concluded only in 1988. Mexico joined it in 1992.

The scale of the economic interconnection of these countries on the basis of mutual trade and the movement of capital can be judged from the following data. About 75-80% of Canadian exports (or 20% of Canada's GNP) are sold in the USA. The share of foreign direct investment of the USA in Canada is over 75% and Canada in the USA is 9%. About 70% of Mexican exports go to the USA, and 65% of Mexican imports come from there.

The existing structure of the North American integration complex has its own characteristics compared to the European model of integration. The main difference is the asymmetric economic interdependence of the US, Canada and Mexico. The interaction between the economic structures of Mexico and Canada is far inferior in depth and scope to Canadian-American and Mexican-American integration. Canada and Mexico are more like competitors in the American market for goods and labor, rivals in attracting capital and technology from American corporations, than partners in the integration process.

Another feature of the North American economic grouping is that its members are in different starting conditions. If Canada over the past decade has managed to approach the United States in terms of the main economic macro indicators (GNP per capita, labor productivity), then Mexico, which for many years was in the position of an economically backward state with a large external debt, still maintains a significant gap with these countries in the main basic indicators.

The key points of the North American Free Trade Agreement, which regulates in detail many aspects of economic relations between the three neighboring countries, are:

Elimination of all customs duties by 2010;

Gradual elimination of a significant number of non-tariff barriers to trade in goods and services;

Relaxation of the regime for North American investment in Mexico;

Liberalization of the activities of American and Canadian banks in the Mexican financial market;

Creation of the US-Canadian-Mexican Arbitration Commission.

In the future, not only the deepening of intra-regional cooperation within the framework of NAFTA is envisaged, but also the expansion of the first composition at the expense of other Latin American countries.

In April 1998, in the capital of Chile, Santiago, at a meeting of heads of state and government of 34 countries of North, Central and South America, the Declaration of Santiago was signed on the creation by 2005 of the Pan-American Free Trade Area with a population of 850 million people and a total GDP of more than than 9 trillion dollars. Thus, we are talking about the formation of an interregional trade and economic community.

6. 3. Economic integration in the Asia-Pacific region

A feature of the integration processes in the Asia-Pacific Region (APR) is the formation of sub-regional centers of integration, the degree of integration within which is very different and has its own specifics. A number of local zones of two or more countries have developed in the region. For example, between Australia and New Zealand signed a free trade agreement. Based on the development of regional trade, the economies of such countries as Malaysia and Singapore, Thailand, and Indonesia are complementary. However, Japan and China remain the main centers of attraction. They occupy a dominant position in the region.

In Southeast Asia, a fairly developed structure has developed - the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), which includes Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Vietnam, Myanmar and Laos. The Association arose in 1967, but only in 1992 did its members set themselves the task of creating a regional free trade zone by 2008 by gradually reducing tariffs within it. Each of the ASEAN member countries is connected with the economy of Japan, the United States and with the newly industrialized countries of Asia. A significant part of Asia-Pacific trade (including within ASEAN) is trade between local subsidiaries of Japanese, American, Canadian, Taiwanese and South Korean corporations. The importance of China is growing, especially in the countries of Confucian culture.

In addition to ASEAN, several other independent economic associations operate in the Asia-Pacific region, including the Asia-Pacific Economic Community (APEC) established in 1989, initially represented by 18 countries (Australia, Brunei, Hong Kong, Canada, China, Kiribati, Malaysia, the Marshall islands, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Republic of Korea, Singapore, USA, Thailand, Taiwan, Philippines, Chile), which were then (ten years later) joined by Russia, Vietnam and Peru.

APEC activities are aimed at stimulating mutual trade and developing cooperation, in particular, in such areas as technical standards and certification, customs harmonization, development of raw materials industries, transport, energy, small business.

It is assumed that by 2020, within the framework of APEC, the world's largest free trade zone without internal barriers and customs will be formed. However, for the developed countries that are members of APEC, this task should be solved by 2010.

The recognized course of the Pacific economic organizations is the so-called open regionalism. Its essence is that the development of cooperation ties and the removal of restrictions on the movement of goods, labor resources and capital within a given region is combined with adherence to the principles of the WTO / GATT, the rejection of protectionism against other countries, and the stimulation of the development of extra-regional economic ties.

The development of interstate economic cooperation on the path to integration is also taking place in other regions of Asia. Thus, in 1981, the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Persian Gulf, which united Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates and Oman, arose and is still functioning in the Middle East. This is the so-called oil six.

In 1992, the creation of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development of the Central Asian States (ECO-ECO) was announced. Iran was the initiator. Pakistan and Turkey. In the future, it is planned to create on this basis a Central Asian common market with the participation of Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and the Central Asian republics, which are now members of the CIS-

The formation of trade and economic groupings is increasingly based on a commonality of religious, ideological and cultural roots. In June 1997 in Istanbul, at a meeting of high-ranking representatives of countries from various regions: Turkey, Iran, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Egypt and Nigeria, it was decided to create a "Muslim G8" with the aim of trade, monetary, financial, scientific and technical cooperation.

6. 4. Integration in Latin America

The economic integration of Latin American countries has its own specifics. For Latin America, in the first stage (70s), it was characteristic to create numerous economic groupings with the aim of liberalizing foreign trade and protection of the intra-regional market through the customs barrier. Many of them formally exist today.

By the mid 90s. integration processes have intensified. As a result of the trade pact between Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay (MERCOSUR) concluded in 1991 and which entered into force on January 1, 1995, a new large regional trade and economic bloc was formed, in which about 90% of mutual trade is exempt from any tariff barriers and a single customs tariff is established for third parties; countries. 45% of the population of Latin America (more than 200 million people) is concentrated here, over 50% of the total GDP.

MERCOSUR has a certain system of management and coordination of integration processes. It includes the Common Market Council composed of foreign ministers, the Common Market Group - an executive body and 10 technical commissions subordinate to it. The activities of MERCOSUR contribute to the stabilization of the economic development of its member countries, in particular, curbing inflation and the decline in production. At the same time, there are also unresolved problems: currency regulation, unification of taxation, labor legislation.

The desire of the countries of Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua and El Salvador) for economic cooperation received legal expression in the agreement concluded between them back in the 60s. an agreement that provided for the creation of a free trade zone, and then the Central American Common Market (CACM). However, the subsequent economic and political situation in this region significantly slowed down the process of integration interaction.

Since the mid 90s. on the basis of the CAOR, whose activity had significantly weakened by that time, a free trade zone was created with the help of Mexico. As a result, intra-regional trade increased significantly. For the integration processes taking place in Latin America, it is typical that a number of countries are simultaneously included in various economic associations. Thus, the countries in MERCOSUR, simultaneously with other states (a total of 11 states) are members of the largest integration association in Latin America - the Latin American Integration Association (LAI), within which, in turn, it has been operating since 1969. The Andean subregional grouping, including Bolivia, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Ecuador, Venezuela. Bolivia and Chile at the same time have the status of associate members of the bloc MERCOSUR.

A sufficiently developed integration grouping in Latin America is CARICOM, or the Caribbean Community, which unites 15 English-speaking countries of the Caribbean. The purpose of this grouping is the creation of the Caribbean Common Market.

Within the framework of all integration groupings of Latin America, foreign trade liberalization programs have been adopted; mechanisms for industrial and financial cooperation have been developed, methods for regulating relations with foreign investors and a system for protecting the interests of the least developed countries have been determined.

6. 5. Economic integration in the post-Soviet space

The economy of the USSR developed as a highly integrated complex, where individual parts were closely connected with each other, although the intra-union division of labor was by no means always justified from the point of view of the development of productive forces. The rupture of established ties after the collapse of the Soviet Union was very painful.

Immediately after the collapse of the USSR, integration trends arose in the former Soviet republics. At the first stage, they manifested themselves in attempts to protect, at least partially, the former common economic space from disintegration processes, and primarily in areas where the termination of ties had a particularly adverse effect on the state of the national economy (transport, communications, energy supplies, etc. .). In the future, approximately from 1996-1997, the aspirations for integration on other bases intensified, taking into account the emerging realities.

Russia is the natural core of the CIS. Of all the post-Soviet republics, it accounts for over 3/4 of the territory, almost 1/2 of the population and about 2/3 of the GDP.

6.5.1 Factors of economic integration of the former Soviet republics

Integration trends in the post-Soviet space are generated by the following main factors:

Long-term cohabitation within one state of many peoples. It has created a dense "fabric of relations" in various areas and forms (due to the mixed population, mixed marriages, elements of a common cultural space, lack of a language barrier, interest in the free movement of people, etc.). The conflict of interethnic and interfaith relations (between the two main religions: Orthodoxy and Islam) was generally low. Hence the desire of the broad masses of the population in the CIS member countries to maintain fairly close mutual ties;

Technological interdependence, uniform technical norms.

However, the integration processes ran into opposite trends, determined primarily by the desire of the ruling circles in the former Soviet republics to consolidate the newly acquired sovereignty and strengthen their statehood. This was seen by them as an unconditional priority, and considerations of economic expediency receded into the background if integration measures were perceived as a limitation of sovereignty. But any integration, even the most moderate one, presupposes the transfer of some rights to the unified bodies of the integration association, i.e. voluntary limitation of sovereignty in certain areas. The West, which met with disapproval any integration processes in the post-Soviet space and considered them as attempts to “recreate the USSR”, first covertly and then openly began to actively oppose integration in all its forms. Given the growing financial and political dependence of the CIS member countries on the West, this could not but hinder integration processes.

Of considerable importance for determining the real position of countries in relation to integration within the framework of the CIS, especially in the first years after the collapse of the USSR, were the hopes for Western assistance if these countries did not “rush” with integration. The unwillingness to properly take into account the interests of partners, the inflexibility of positions, so common in the policies of the new states, also did not contribute to the achievement of agreements and their practical implementation.

Differences in the nature of systemic reforms have at times created difficulties in forging mutual links, for example, in the functioning of the payment mechanism and the banking system. Integration measures often required funds and determination. Often, both were missing. The severe systemic crisis in all CIS countries and the Baltic States has made material hardship, especially the scarcity of convertible currency, a ubiquitous phenomenon.

The readiness of the former Soviet republics for integration was different, which was determined not so much by economic as by political and even ethnic factors. From the very beginning, the Baltic countries were against participation in any structures of the CIS. For them, the desire to distance themselves from Russia and their past as far as possible in order to strengthen their sovereignty and “enter Europe” was dominant, despite the high interest in maintaining and developing economic ties with the CIS member countries. Restrained attitude towards integration within the framework of the CIS was noted on the part of Ukraine, Georgia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, more positive - on the part of Belarus, Armenia, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.

Therefore, many of them considered the CIS primarily as a mechanism for a "civilized divorce", striving to implement it and strengthen their own statehood in such a way that the inevitable losses from the disruption of established ties were minimal. The task of real rapprochement of the CIS member countries was relegated to the background. Hence the constant unsatisfactory implementation of the decisions made. A number of countries tried to Use the integration mechanism to achieve their political objectives. In particular, Georgia sought to establish an economic and political blockade of Abkhazia through the CIS to combat Abkhazian separatism.

The decision to create the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was taken by the presidents of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine simultaneously with the signing of the Belovezhskaya Accords on the dissolution of the USSR at the end of 1991. Subsequently, all former Soviet republics, except for the Baltic ones, joined the CIS. The charter defines the goals of the Commonwealth: to promote rapprochement of the CIS members in the economic, political and humanitarian fields, to maintain and develop contacts and cooperation between people, government institutions and enterprises of the Commonwealth countries. CIS - open organization to join other countries.

6.5.2 Successes and failures of the CIS

The main economic success of the CIS should be attributed to its real functioning as a free trade zone.

It can be considered a failure that from 1992 to 1998, about a thousand joint decisions were made in the CIS bodies in the most "different areas of cooperation, but most of them remained on paper for various reasons, mainly due to the unwillingness of the countries to members to limit their sovereignty, without which real integration is impossible or has an extremely narrow framework.The bureaucratic nature of the integration mechanism, its sluggishness, and its lack of control functions also played a certain role.

Criticism of the inefficiency of the work of the CIS became especially audible in 1997-1998. Some critics generally doubted the viability of the very idea of ​​integration in the CIS, and some saw bureaucracy, cumbersomeness, and the lack of a smooth integration mechanism as the reason for this inefficiency.

However, the main obstacle to successful integration was not in the shortcomings of the functioning of the organizational mechanism of the Commonwealth, but in the absence of an agreed goal of integration, a sequence of integration actions, a weak political will to achieve progress, and economic difficulties. Some of the ruling circles of the new states are still counting on gaining benefits from distancing themselves from Russia and integrating within the CIS.

Nevertheless, despite all these doubts and criticism, the organization has kept its existence, because it is needed by most of the CIS member countries. One cannot discount the hopes, widespread among the general population of these states, that the intensification of mutual cooperation will help overcome the serious difficulties that all post-Soviet republics faced in the course of transforming their socio-economic systems and strengthening their statehood. Deep family and cultural ties also encouraged the preservation of mutual ties.

6.5.3. Prospects for the CIS

As the formation of their own statehood took place, the ruling circles of the CIS member countries lessened their fears that integration could lead to the undermining of sovereignty. The possibilities of increasing hard currency earnings through further reorientation of fuel and raw material exports to the markets of third countries turned out to be gradually exhausted. The potential for expanding exports of finished goods outside the CIS is extremely limited due to the low competitiveness of manufacturing products of the CIS member countries. At the same time, the reserves for expanding trade within the CIS, especially in finished goods, remain significant.

Technological division of labor and uniform standards inherited from the Soviet period, familiarity with each other's products, the nature of the general training of personnel, etc. created good opportunities for mutual exchange. Of course, these products often do not meet the requirements of world markets in terms of quality and technical level, but trade within the borders of the Commonwealth makes it possible to support part of the production. In the future, it is easier to improve the quality and technical level of products on the basis of operating enterprises than to start from scratch.

The global financial crisis, which began with shocks in the countries of Southeast Asia in 1997, worsened the prospects for exports of the CIS countries. The financial crisis that erupted in Russia in August 1998 had a negative impact on the integration processes. However, it did not seriously undermine the objective interest of the CIS member countries in preserving and further development mutual economic relations.

Some revival and modification was introduced into the integration processes by the idea of ​​integrating “different speeds”, i.e. building alliances between various countries- members of the CIS with varying degrees of integration and with different areas of joint activity.

The most intensive integration in various fields is between Russia and Belarus. The great majority are white; The Russian population and the top political leadership of the country are in favor of a close alliance with Russia, up to the creation of a confederal state.

In 1996, an agreement was signed on the Union of Belarus and Russia, which provides for a wide range of integration measures. In addition to economic cooperation, it provides for the recognition of diplomas obtained in both countries, equalization of the rights of citizens in obtaining education, employment, convergence of social security standards, etc. However, despite the presence of unconditional prerequisites for deep and intensive integration processes, they face considerable objective and subjective obstacles, primarily resistance to integration with Belarus by an influential part of the Russian political elite for ideological reasons.

Since 1995, the Customs Union began to form, which included Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. Later, Tajikistan joined it. The Union pursues the goal of creating a single customs area and unification of trade regimes in relation to third countries. The terms of the Customs Union provide for the gradual unification of economic law, the harmonization of foreign exchange and monetary policy. Volume necessary work turned out to be very large, and interests in specific areas did not always coincide, so the results turned out to be less than planned.

In 1996, the Union of Four (Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Belarus) was created, which supplemented the economic sphere with cooperation in the national and humanitarian fields (science, education, culture, etc.). It was supposed to harmonize not only economic, but also social policy. The agreement was of a framework nature, on its basis agreements were to be reached in specific areas. The results were similar to those of the creation of the Customs Union.

Common interests in the development of regional cooperation led to the conclusion of the Central Asian Union between Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan. Its purpose is to coordinate economic and defense policy. The creation of this union was determined by the desire of its participants to strengthen their positions outside by coordinating policies in areas where there were mutual interests, and to intensify regional relations, using territorial and cultural proximity, historical ties and the division of labor that developed back in Soviet times.

There is a rapprochement between Ukraine, Georgia, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and Moldova, which is based on common interests in creating a transport corridor in the south of the former USSR. The problem of oil and gas supplies to foreign markets from Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan has become one of the key ones for the economic development of these countries. Supported by the West and Turkey, they seek to diversify their energy transportation routes, including through Georgia and Ukraine. In its turn, last countries are interested in expanding their income through transit (Georgia) and obtaining alternative sources of energy supply (Ukraine). So far, the rapprochement between these countries has not yet taken any clear organizational forms.

The impact of the regionalization of the CIS on the overall integration processes within the Commonwealth is ambiguous. On the one hand, it breaks up a single integration space, and on the other hand, regionalization means mini-integration in the post-Soviet space in those cases where general integration turns out to be difficult. Under certain circumstances, "integration of different speeds" can even contribute to integration processes in general, giving rise to "crystallization zones", drawing other countries into the common "fabric of cooperation". Obstacles on this

the paths are the same as at the level of the entire Commonwealth: first of all, the unwillingness to limit their sovereignty and take due account of the interests of partners, doubts about the benefits of rapprochement.

Behind the integration of "different speeds" are the objective interests of the CIS member countries in various fields. Apparently, the positive moments in the regionalization of the CIS still prevail, and they may well get along with the general integration processes, and often stimulate them, however, provided that serious contradictions do not arise between the subregional groupings.

The final result of the interaction of integration and disintegration processes in the post-Soviet space will depend on many factors: on the results of reforms, the state of the economy, the policies of the ruling circles of the CIS member countries, peoples' awareness of the importance of rapprochement, the policies of third countries and many others both within the CIS and beyond. outside of it. But the main factor will be the results of the development of the economy and systemic reforms, the policy of the leadership in Russia - the natural integration core of the CIS. Everyone seeks to integrate with the rich and prosperous, not with the poor and backward.

The historical experience of the 1990s, undoubtedly the most difficult countries in development - members of the CIS and the Baltic states, showed that they need each other. A significant reduction in mutual trade compared to inter-republican deliveries of the Soviet period, the reorientation of foreign economic relations to third countries does not mean the disappearance of an objective basis for integration into the CIS. These changes were a natural reaction to the inconsistency of the former division of labor, exacerbated by the difficulties of the transformational period and the peculiarities of the political development of the CIS member countries. But now this reorientation is coming to an end, and centripetal tendencies are beginning to emerge more and more. The objective prerequisites for closer integration will certainly increase after the completion of systemic reforms, stabilization and economic recovery in these countries.

7. Conclusion

Economic integration is an objective process based on the internationalization of economic life and the international division of labor. At the same time, interaction is carried out both at the macro- and at the micro-level. International integration processes are increasingly determined not by purely trade relations, but by long-term cooperation between individual firms, primarily those that are part of the systems of various TNCs.

In the world economy, regions are distinguished where the processes of economic integration are most pronounced: Western European, North American and Asia-Pacific. However, the mechanism and degree of integration in each of the regions have their own characteristics.

The most mature form of economic integration is the European Union, formed on the basis of a number of treaties and agreements. Within the framework of the EU, not only barriers to the movement of goods, services, capital and labor have been removed, but an economic, monetary and political union is being created.

Integration in the CIS is based on such objective factors as the division of labor established in the past, technological interdependence, and elements of a common cultural and civilizational space. The main obstacles to integration: fears in the countries - members of the CIS to limit their sovereignty, economic difficulties, incomplete construction of a new socio-economic system. The organizational framework of integration processes is determined by an extensive system of Commonwealth bodies. In addition, a large number of economic, political and humanitarian alliances have emerged in the post-Soviet space between individual CIS member countries, the purpose of which is to develop intra-regional cooperation - integration of "different speeds".

The results of integration into the CIS turned out to be contradictory: many agreements were reached, but most of them were not implemented. At the same time, the Commonwealth did not break up and, on the whole, proved the expediency of its existence.

In accordance with the approach of the World Trade Organization, five main forms (stages) of the development of integration processes and the creation of interstate associations are distinguished. As a result, favorable conditions appear for taking advantage of the unified market, developing national economy, maintaining national industry and agriculture, strengthening the international positions of the participating countries.

First form - conclusion preferential trade agreements between two or more states, a separate state and an association in order to create a more favorable regime for mutual trade, its liberalization. They form the basis free trade zones, whose participants agree on the mutual abolition of customs tariffs, quotas and other restrictions. At the same time, freedom of action and common tariffs in relation to third countries are preserved. The purpose of such a merger is to strengthen the position of companies from these countries in competition with firms from other countries that are not part of the grouping, use the benefits of international specialization and improve the living standards of their population. A classic example of such an association is the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), established in 1960.

A free trade zone as an interstate entity should not be confused with a free trade zone created by states within national borders. (free economic zone).

Second form integration - Customs Union. This is an agreement between two or more states to unite their customs territories, the abolition of duties in trade between them and the common foreign trade policy in relation to third countries (mainly in the area of ​​trade rules and procedures). However, such agreements do not affect all goods. As practice shows, outside the scope of the customs union remain defense industry, energy, etc.

Customs unions and free trade areas were provided for by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), but none of the agreements on their formation fully met its requirements.

The functioning of the customs union gives rise to the need for such tools as:

• unified customs duties;
• supranational bodies that coordinate the development of individual sectors of the economy, domestic markets and foreign trade and gradually ensure industrial integration.

The external tariff established on the borders of the customs union may be higher or lower than the weighted average that existed before the emergence of the integration structure. If the tariff is higher, then the participating countries have to switch to domestic resources, which usually cost more. If the external tariff is lower than the previous weighted average, they are reoriented to the markets of third countries. If there are one or two resource-rich powers in the alliance, these problems are easier to solve than when countries that are poor in resources are united.

Integration is also taking place in the monetary and financial area, but in both cases it concerns only the sphere of exchange and aims to provide the participating countries with the same conditions for conducting trade operations and financial settlements. Therefore, the customs union is often supplemented by a payment union that facilitates the mutual convertibility of currencies, including on the basis of a single unit of account.

A customs union is a more perfect integration structure than a free trade zone, because a single economic space is being formed here and measures of collective protectionism are being carried out. As a result, it becomes possible to regulate commodity flows in the interests of developing production and exports. Over time, this leads to serious changes in the structure of production and has a beneficial effect on the development of integration processes within the customs union. Such measures can be taken if it is necessary to push the domestic manufacturer to produce more competitive products.

In addition, work with the customs tariff makes it possible to create more acceptable conditions for attracting foreign investment, which also has a direct impact on economic growth. An example of a customs union is the European Economic Community.

At present, compared with the late 1950s - early 1960s, when integration processes began to develop, the situation in the world has changed. In connection with the deepening of the internationalization of the economy, the increasing role of foreign direct investment, the growing influence of transnational companies, barriers to trade between countries are decreasing.

Third form(stage) integration - Common Market. Its creation makes it possible to implement tasks that cannot be solved within the framework of a customs union. Here there is a complete elimination of obstacles not only in trade, but also for the movement between states of all factors of production (capital, labor, technology, information). Differences in technical standards are gradually overcome, national brands of goods are protected by legislation, and so on.

But the removal of customs barriers alone is not enough. It is necessary to solve the problem of developing and coordinating a common policy for the development of individual industries and sectors of the economy based on how important they are for further deepening integration processes, what will be the social resonance after the adoption of appropriate measures, how it will affect a particular consumer.

In the European Economic Community, during the transition to the single market, agriculture and transport were identified as such areas. To support the necessary activities, general funds for promoting social and regional development were formed.

At the same time, the establishment unified system external tariffs and barriers to trade with other countries. Due to the use of the advantages of specialization, the volume of trade between states is growing, investments are increasing in the latest technology, costs and prices are reduced, the scope of competition is expanding, efficiency is increasing, and economies of scale are emerging.

The common market ensures the unification of the common goals of the countries in it in relation to economic growth, the harmonization of monetary, tax and other policies. It is from this moment that the processes of integration really develop.

In early 2003, practical steps began to create a single market for Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine and Belarus. Their ultimate goal is the formation of a single economic, legal and information space and the subsequent creation of a basis for the transition of the integration group to a qualitatively new stage - an economic union.

fourth form integration association is economic (and currency) union, which involves the implementation by the participating countries of a system of measures of interstate regulation of socio-economic processes. This requires the creation and use of appropriate tools, including:

• regulations (essentially laws) obligatory for application in the member states;
• setting mandatory targets (at the same time, countries are given the freedom to choose the forms and methods of their solution);
• specific instructions to governments, legal entities or individuals to commit (prohibit) certain actions in the field of competition;
• harmonization and unification of national legislation;
• formation of a coordinated or unified economic and monetary policy;
• the creation of interstate or supranational governments, banks, the introduction of a single currency, etc. In the European Community, these are the European Parliament, the Council of Ministers, the European Commission, the European Court, the Council of Europe.

This kind of international economic organizations, which are an instrument of integration, differ from international economic organizations providing various forms economic cooperation, such as the WTO.

To date, Western European integration has already ensured a smooth transition from a single market to an economic and monetary union based on a single currency, the euro. An economic union cannot be such as long as it is based on various monetary systems that remain in national subordination. The absence of a single currency preserves internal differences in the organization of credit, settlements, exchange rate policy, and consequently the associated delays in payments, incommensurability of taxes, and inconsistencies in monetary policy and regulation.

The advantages of a common supranational currency, both for states and for individual economic entities, boil down to:

• the possibility of ensuring a single budget discipline at the macroeconomic level;
• facilitated by the unification of money markets and control by supranational financial institutions, the fight against inflation, the impact on interest rates, and eventually taxes (this contributes to the growth of production, employment and stabilization of public finances);
• reduction for economic entities (compared to a multicurrency environment) of overhead costs for settlement services of operations, price and currency risks, terms of funds transfers and, as a result, a noticeable decrease in the need for working capital;
• cheaper for individuals conducting settlements and trips within the European Community (losses associated with the difference in exchange rates and the payment of commissions disappear);
• creating an opportunity with the help of a single currency (euro) to actively resist the dollar and the yen.

The basis of supranational currency regulation is a two-tier banking system that combines central banks member countries and the European Central Bank (ECB).

fifth form integration is political and economic. Here the uniting countries begin to lose their state sovereignty; a common tax system, uniform standards, labor legislation, strengthening and expanding the scope of the supranational method of regulation, a single economic space with an appropriate political superstructure on the model of the Swiss Confederation are being formed.

But in practice, the boundaries between various types integration associations are very conditional.