The concept of political activity. Types of political activity. IV. Political practice and ideology In theory and practice, political activity
Political practice (from the Greek πρακτικος - active,
active) - material, objective, goal-setting activity
subjects of political life, which characterizes their attitude towards
politics and participation in it is the second component of the structure
political system.
Political practice allows us to evaluate a particular country,
era, behavior (activity) of subjects of political life.
Political practice is determined by state and legal
institutions, cultural and historical traditions, social
psychological, national, religious characteristics
people, their economic structure.
Political practice is a state of various
political forces competing for influence and leadership. She
changeable and dynamic, differentiated on various grounds:
political beliefs, culture, level of professionalism,
breadth of social base, degree of legality, etc.
Within the framework of political life, its subjects enter into
political relations, guided by political norms -
rules of the political game: moral norms, common sense,
sense of proportion, taking into account the balance of forces, formal or
unspoken agreements.
Political norms reflect political values.
Political norms- these are the rules for achieving absolute and
relative, necessary and contingent political values.
Political guidelines- fundamental provisions or
developed by the political elite and proclaimed party
leaders.
Political norms are closely related to legal norms (see.
topic 8), since the Constitution of the country, its constitutional laws
are not only legal, but also political documents.
The same connection exists between political and legal relations and processes: “High-profile” trials have
political significance. Nevertheless, political process has and
independent significance as a form of life of the political system,
evolving in time and space. It is different from
other social processes: economic, ideological and
etc., may have a specific final result(victory in elections,
formation of a party, etc.).
The political process has its own content, structure, stages,
subjects and object, resource base, spatial and temporal
characteristics, micro- and macroscales, dynamics, etc., which
studied in special disciplines.
The third structural component of the political system is
political ideology has an even closer connection with
social - legal, religious, philosophical,
natural sciences, scientific and technical, etc. consciousness.
Political ideology- system of views and doctrines,
developed by political science, which expresses the attitude
to political reality.
Political ideology is one of the effective organizational,
regulatory, control instruments that determine
life activity of society and man, functionally related to
law and state, with other structural elements
political system. In turn, political ideology can
be institutionalized in the relevant groups,
unions, parties, movements...
Political ideology has its own subject,
methodological, functional side, interacts with
philosophy, jurisprudence.
Political consciousness consists in the subject’s perception of that
part of the reality surrounding him, which is connected with politics,
in which he himself is included, as well as the actions associated with it and
condition. It reflects the degree of familiarity of the subject with politics,
psychological and rational attitude towards her, affects his
political behavior.
4) political leadership (policy implementation) in private affairs;
5) political principles, beliefs, opinions or sympathies of an individual (women’s or other politics);
6) the totality of interacting and usually conflicting relationships between people living in society; relations between leaders and non-leaders in any social organism (political community, church, club or trade union);
7) political science.
Noah Webster
In the mass consciousness, politics is usually identified with the management of some process. For example, when it comes to " economic policy” or “education policy,” this means that the problems that have accumulated in the economy or education require attention and control from the state. Such attention is expressed in the formation of development tasks and the determination of the means by which the assigned tasks can be solved, based on the capabilities of the state. Another meaning of the term “politics” in everyday consciousness is associated with the characteristic of the active human principle: the ability to consciously set goals and determine the means of achieving them, as well as the ability to compare costs and results. In this case, politics is identified with the concept of “strategy”.
In the political science dictionary under politics refers to a special type of activity associated with the participation of social groups, political parties, movements, and individuals in the affairs of society and the state.
The core of political activity is activities related to the implementation, retention, and opposition to power. Political activity covers several areas: public administration, the influence of political parties and movements on the course of social processes, adoption political decisions, political participation. The political sphere is closely connected with other public spheres. Any phenomenon: economic, social, and cultural, can be politically charged, associated with an impact on the authorities.
Political activity– there is activity in the sphere of political and power relations. Political relations- these are relations between subjects of the political system on issues of gaining, exercising, and retaining power. In theory and practice political activity often associated with coercion and violence. The legality of using violence is often determined by the extremeness and rigidity of the political process. As a result of political activity, interaction of institutions of the political system, implementation of political decisions and guidelines, the political process is formed and developed.
Political activity can be active and passive, spontaneous and purposeful; an important part of political activity is political leadership, which includes the following links:
· Development and justification of the goals and objectives of society, social group
· Determination of methods, forms, means, resources of political activity
· Selection and placement of personnel
POLICY STRUCTURE
Directions of government activity to satisfy the aggregate public interests can be called policy directions. There is an internal policy - that is, one that is focused on resolving internal state problems - maintaining order, ensuring the development of the country, and the well-being of its citizens. Foreign policy includes the resolution of interstate contradictions; its task is to defend the interests of the state on the world stage. Allocated to modern world and international politics. It is not simple government activity, rather - supranational. The United Nations, the Council of Europe and other similar organizations will participate in it.
We can also talk about different types of policies in relation to areas of public life that need to be regulated by the state. (This issue is discussed in more detail in the paragraph “Functions of the State”). We can talk about policies in the field of culture, science, and the fight against organized crime. Politics represents, in its entirety, activities aimed at exercising power, at achieving society’s goals and objectives, ensuring a higher standard of living than before, social harmony and stable development.
Exercise: Give examples of the implementation of internal and foreign policy states using knowledge of history
Politic system- a set of various political institutions, socio-political communities, forms of interactions and relationships between them.
Functions of the political system:
Determination of goals, objectives and ways of development of society;
Organization of the company's activities;
Distribution of spiritual and material resources;
Coordination of different political interests;
Promotion of various norms of behavior;
Stability and security of society;
Involving people in political life;
Monitoring the implementation of decisions and compliance with standards.
Basic elements of the political system:
a) Institutional subsystem - political organizations: parties and socio-political movements (trade unions, religious and cooperative organizations, interest clubs), the state is allocated to a special structure.
b) Communication subsystem - a set of relations and forms of interaction between classes, social groups, nations and individuals.
c) Normative subsystem - norms and traditions that define and regulate the political life of society: legal norms (constitutions and laws refer to written norms), ethical and moral norms (unwritten ideas about good and evil, truth and justice).
d) Cultural-ideological subsystem - a set of political ideas, views, perceptions and feelings that are different in content; 2 levels - theoretical (political ideology: views, slogans, ideas, concepts, theories) and practical (political psychology: feelings, emotions, moods, prejudices, traditions).
Classification of political systems
a) Depending on the source of power and dominance in the power-society-individual relationship: democratic and non-democratic (authoritarian and totalitarian).
b) Open (competition) - closed (purpose).
c) Military - civilian - theocratic.
d) Dictatorial (reliance on violence) - liberal (freedom of the individual and society).
Democratic systems are built on the principles of individualism, humanity (man is the main value), responsibility, equality, social justice, initiative, sovereignty of the people, plurality of opinions, tolerance, freedom, presumption of innocence, criticality, gradual change; and non-democratic ones are based on collectivism, casteism, political passivity, a system of subordination, indoctrination of citizens, state guardianship, the use of any means to achieve set goals, utopianism (blind faith in certain ideals), radicalism, violence.
Exercise: use historical examples to illustrate the types of political systems
Depending on the source of power, we can talk about open and closed political systems. Open systems characterized by free competition and the availability of opportunities for everyone to realize their desire to participate in political life. Moreover, this openness should extend to all spheres of life - when filling any position, a competition is announced and the most qualified specialist is selected according to previously known criteria. On the contrary, in closed systems everything is decided on the basis of acquaintances, family ties, bribes, and personal preferences. Professionalism in this case fades into the background, and if competitions for filling positions are held, this is done formally with pre-known results. Thus, we can talk about two types of boards. In the first case, the government can be gotten rid of without bloodshed, primarily through elections. In this case, the transfer of power from one group to another is not accompanied by a complete destruction of political institutions and social traditions. The second type assumes that the government can only leave in the event of a coup, successful uprising, conspiracy, civil war, etc.
The rest are very close to the considered classifications. Thus, some divide all political systems into military, civil and theocratic. In this case, the main criterion is the dominant position in the state of one of three groups with significant authority and power. In the modern world, most countries have civil power, but there are still states dominated by the military (primarily in Africa and South America) or religious leaders (Asian and some African countries). There is also a division into dictatorial (reliance on violence) and liberal (protection of personal freedom) systems.
The most important task of political science as a science is to study the functioning of the political system and its constituent institutions.
Questions:
1. Define the concepts: politics, political system, political activity, political relations, political leader
2. What does political activity include? Give examples of political activity.
3. What is a political system? What are the elements of a political system?
4. What bases for classifying political systems do you know? Explain using historical examples.
Tasks:
1. Work with text:
German sociologist Max Weber(1864-1920): policy “has an extremely broad meaning and covers all types of activities of independent leadership. They talk about the foreign exchange policy of the banks, the discount policy of the Reichsbank, the policy of the trade union during a strike; one can talk about the school policy of an urban and rural community, about the management policy of a corporation manager, and finally, even about the policy of a smart wife who seeks to manage her husband.” “Politics... means the desire to participate in power or influence the distribution of power, be it between states, or within a state between the groups of people that it includes... Whoever is involved in politics strives for power: either to power as a means subordinate to other goals (ideal or egoistic), or to power “for its own sake” in order to enjoy the sense of prestige that it gives.”
Questions:
- Based on the proposed text, determine the main meaning of the concept “policy”.
- Which policy subjects are named in the text? Give examples of their political activities.
2. Pastemissing words in text fragments:
Fragment 1. _________________ is also “the activities of __________ bodies, citizens’ associations and individuals“, aimed at defending one’s interests and associated with the desire for ___________, its possession and implementation,” and “participation in state affairs.”
Fragment 2. ___________ politician is one who managed to maintain his _____________, combining them with the interests of others, who managed to gain __________ over the situation, over himself, over others.
Fragment 3. _________________ (translated from Latin means “legality”) - means recognition of the right to manage and agreement to obey ________________; the ability of the authorities to form a belief in the optimality and fairness of existing political institutions for a given society.
3. Continue the statements:
Politics is an art because ___________________________________
Politics is a science because ___________________________________
Politics is akin to business because ___________________________________
Politics is like sport when ________________________________
4. Working with quotations: Choose one quote from those provided. Express your attitude to the author's position. Justify based on historical examples.
A) “The rules of morality and virtue are holier than all others and serve as the basis of true politics” ()
B) “Politics must be a science and an art, always resting on a certain philosophy and morality, on a certain philosophical and moral understanding of all life, both personal and public” (E. Benes)
C) “Politics is a relentless choice between two evils” (D. Morley)
D) “Everything that is morally evil is also evil in politics” ()
E) “The path to the ennoblement of politics is to strengthen its conformity with the tenets of religion” (Thomas Aquinas)
E) “The art of politics is the art of doing so that it is beneficial for everyone to be virtuous” (C. Helvetius)
G) “In politics, for the sake of a certain goal, you can enter into an alliance even with the devil himself - you just need to be sure that you will draw the line, and not the devil you” (K. Marx)
5. Prepare a detailed answer on the topic “ Political consciousness and political behavior" Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points
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In political science, there are different approaches to understanding politics. One of them is to consider politics as one of the four main spheres of society. The sphere of politics includes political consciousness, political organizations (government, parliament, parties, etc.), and tasks that are different social groups seek to resolve, using power, and a political process through conflict and cooperation, including measures to maintain stability in society and reform. The second approach is based on understanding politics as a special type social relations between individuals, small groups and large communities, i.e. relations associated with power, the state, and management of the affairs of society. Finally, the third approach consists of considering politics as one of the types of activity, that is, the activity of its subjects - participants in political life. All three approaches provide a multidimensional view of one object - politics. Historical development and the experience of many generations of thinkers engaged in the study of politics and political activity is concentrated in modern science, in particular in political science, sociology, political psychology and other branches of social science.
Politics is an activity government agencies, political parties, social movements in the sphere of relations between large social groups, primarily classes, nations and states, aimed at integrating their efforts with the aim of strengthening political power or its conquest by specific methods.
Politics is a special type of activity associated with the participation of social groups, parties, movements, individuals in the affairs of society and the state, their leadership or influence on this leadership. When considering politics as an activity, there is every reason to recognize it as both the science and the art of managing (the state, people), building relationships and realizing interests, as well as gaining, retaining, and using political power.
It follows that political activity constitutes the main content of the political sphere of life. To determine the content of the concept of political activity means to give an essential definition of politics.
Political activity is a type of activity aimed at changing or maintaining existing political relations. At its core, political activity is the leadership and management of social relations with the help of institutions of power. Its essence is the management of people, human communities.
The specific content of political activity is: participation in state affairs, determining the forms, tasks and directions of state activity, distribution of power, control over its activities, as well as other influence on political institutions. Each of the noted points generalizes diverse types of activities: for example, the direct performance by people of political functions within institutions state power and political parties and indirect participation associated with the delegation of powers to certain institutions; professional and non-professional activities; leadership and executive activities aimed at strengthening a given political system or, conversely, at its destruction; institutionalized or non-institutionalized activities (for example, extremism), etc.
Political activity is also manifested in various forms participation of the broad masses in the political life of society. In the course of political activity, its participants enter into specific relationships with each other. This can be cooperation, alliance, mutual support, and confrontation, conflict, struggle. The essence of political activity is revealed in the specifics of its object and structural elements: subject, goals, means, conditions, knowledge, motivation and norms, and finally, the process of activity itself.
The subjects of politics are, firstly, large social communities, which include social groups and strata, classes, nations, estates, etc.; secondly, political organizations and associations (states, parties, mass movements); thirdly, political elites are relatively small groups that concentrate power in their hands; fourthly, individuals, and primarily political leaders.
IN modern Russia the most influential subjects of political activity are political parties and movements (especially in the person of their leaders), all kinds of power structures and bodies, public associations, population (during referendums and election campaigns).
The object of policy is the subject to which the activity of the acting subject is directed and in which the change results. Most often, both the object and the subject of political activity are people, that is, participants in political activity. In political activity, the object-subject relationship represents an organic unity: after all, a person is the main subject and object of politics; social groups, organizations, movements also act simultaneously as objects of political activity and as its subjects. In addition, the objects of political activity can be social phenomena, processes, situations, facts. From an examination of the objects of political activity, we can conclude that politics affects the entire society, all aspects of its life. This leads to the conclusion about the enormous importance of political activity in the development of society.
Political activity, like any other, presupposes the determination of its goals. They are divided into long-term (they are called strategic) and current goals. Goals can be relevant, priority and irrelevant, real and unrealistic. How relevant, on the one hand, and realistic, on the other, this or that goal can be answered only through a complete and accurate analysis of the main trends in social development, urgent social needs, the alignment of political forces, and the interests of various social groups.
Of particular importance is the question of the availability of means by which the intended goals can be achieved. The attitude: the end justifies the means is characteristic of dictatorial regimes and their political carriers. The requirements of compliance of means with democratic, humane goals of politics are the norm of truly popular forces and political structures expressing their interests. However, many scientists note that a politician often has to choose: either to prevent danger, take tough measures that do not fully correspond to “absolute morality,” or, through inaction, allow damage to society. The moral limit that cannot be crossed is reflected today in human rights documents and in international humanitarian law.
An essential feature of political activity is its rationality. Rational actions are conscious, planned, with a clear understanding of the goals and necessary means. Rationality in politics is specific: it includes ideology. The ideological component permeates every political action, as long as it is focused on certain values and interests. Moreover, it is a criterion sign of its direction.
The rational moment, of course, is decisive in the subjective semantic content of political action, expressing the subject’s attitude to the institutions of power. However, political action is not limited to rationality. It leaves room for the irrational as a deviation from purposefulness. Irrational are actions motivated mainly by the emotional states of people, for example, their irritation, hatred, feelings of fear, impressions of current events. In real political life, rational and irrational principles combine and interact. Political actions can be spontaneous or organized. A spontaneous rally and a carefully prepared party conference are examples of such actions.
Recently, the importance of such methods of political activity as persuasion, study public opinion, constructive dialogue between various political forces, monitoring compliance with legal norms, predicting the consequences of certain political actions. All this requires high political culture, moral self-control, and political will from political subjects.
Political activity is differentiated into theoretical and practical. Being relatively independent, they are interdependent. Political theory It gains effectiveness and efficiency when it is based on practical experience and coincides with the needs and interests of those groups that the subject of politics represents.
Political activity is heterogeneous; several clearly defined states can be distinguished in its structure. It is advisable to begin their analysis with a type of activity, the political significance of which is undoubtedly very great, but the meaning of which lies precisely in the rejection and denial of politics. It is political alienation.
Political alienation is a state of relations between a person and political power, which is characterized by the concentration of a person’s efforts on solving the problems of personal life while separating them and contrasting them with political life. Politics is considered in the sphere of alienation as a type of activity that does not concern real problems and human interests, and contact with political power is considered extremely undesirable. Here a purely forced contact is established with the authorities, the state through a system of duties, taxes, duties, etc. For ruling groups political alienation is expressed in the transformation civil service into the sphere of serving only private, narrow group interests, power is usurped by individuals and replaced by the struggle of cliques representing corporate interests. Serving the interests of social integrity turns into a means of maintaining only individual life. A striking manifestation of political alienation is the phenomenon of bureaucracy.
The next type of political activity is political passivity.
Political passivity is a type of political activity in which the subject, and it can be either an individual or a social group, does not realize his own interests, but is under the political influence of another social group. Passivity in politics is not inactive, it is specific form activities and a form of politics when a social group realizes not its own, but political interests alien to it. A type of political passivity is conformism, expressed in the acceptance by a social group of the values of the political system as its own, although they do not correspond to its vital interests. The means of forming conformist political attitudes is a specific technique of influencing the consciousness and behavior of people - manipulation, which involves “transforming people into controlled objects, deforming them.” inner world, thoughts, feelings and actions and thereby the destruction of their personalities through influences that distort ideas about real interests and needs and imperceptibly, while seeming to preserve free will, subordinate people to a will that is alien to them.” The manipulation system focuses primarily on the subconscious sphere of the people’s psyche, and its methods and means modern societies They are becoming more and more sophisticated, actively using the achievements of psychology and sociology.
The criterion for the political activity of an individual or social group is the desire and ability to realize their interests by influencing political power or directly using it.
The nature of political activity varies significantly depending on the specifics of the problems causing it, the time of occurrence of the tasks to which it is aimed, and the composition of the participants.
IN modern conditions political activity has the following characteristic features:
- -- the growing desire of citizens to act outside traditional forms of political activity and participation, instead of rigidly formalized political parties, preference is given to political movements without a clearly defined organized structure;
- - unification is increasingly taking place not around any party, but around a problem, regarding its solution;
- -- the number of citizens interested in politics is growing, but at the same time the number of parties is falling;
- -- more and more people are inclined to independent politicization; they do not associate their participation in politics with belonging to one or another current political force or structure, but strive to act independently.
The initial stage of pronounced active activity, when a political subject makes a clear choice of action tendencies, is a political position.
A mature form of political activity is a political movement, that is, such a purposeful and long-term social action of a certain social group, which has as its goal the transformation of the political system or its conscious defense.
Thus, the concept of “political activity” reflects the diversity of people’s actions in the sphere of politics, and the concept of “political activity” - the leading creative, transformative form of political activity, expresses the essence of politics - the realization by a social group of its own interests. Political participation is a characteristic of the degree of involvement of a subject in a politically active action, and the concept of “political behavior” allows us to reveal the mechanism and structure of political activity.
Institute for the adoption of political and management decisions at various levels in government bodies it is a key node in managing the most important areas of public life. Moreover, politics in the proper sense of the word cannot be imagined without mechanisms for preparing, making and implementing decisions. Policy itself is, to one degree or another, the result of decision-making mechanisms and processes.
The essence and main components of a political decision
The nature and content of political and administrative decisions taken by power structures indicate the goals, mechanisms and means of implementation government controlled. With the help of the institution of making and implementing decisions from everyday to vitally important for a given society, the interaction of the governed and the managers, the reproduction of the political system itself, as well as control over various types resources at the disposal of society and the state. Political decisions play an indispensable role as a tool for preventing or resolving various types of internal and external conflicts.
A political decision is a process of determining the tasks of public authorities, carried out in a collective or individual form. It can be argued that political activity at any level and any scale begins with decision-making. And the success or failure, as well as the reputation and authority of a particular political figure, political institutions and organizations, and the political regime itself depends on how well-thought-out, justified and consistent with the real state of affairs this decision is.
The whole variety of decisions, depending on their significance and status, can be divided into strategic ones, made by the highest political leadership of the country, various kinds of administrative and managerial bodies of the central and regional levels, bodies local government, as well as higher and lower bodies of political parties and public organizations etc. Decisions can be divided into political and administrative, vitally important for the whole society, concerning certain categories of the population, certain regions, certain spheres of public life, etc.
The decisive role in the development and adoption of long-term and strategic decisions that determine the main directions and priorities of the socio-economic and political development of the country belongs to the highest political leadership of the country, the highest bodies of state power represented by the legislative assembly, the head of state and his apparatus, the government and the judiciary. We are talking about the political management of the affairs of the entire society. In this context, the state is called upon to ensure the functioning and development of the main spheres of people’s lives, to create and maintain the infrastructure on which all the life of society, including the economic system, is based.
These are decisions of national importance, binding on all bodies and units without exception. state apparatus and citizens. The most important function of the state in this context is to ensure the integrity and unity of institutions and bodies performing various management functions.
Here the political priorities facing the state become decisive. Political priorities mean particularly highlighted guidelines and guidelines, which are given paramount importance and which are placed at the forefront when developing the main directions of socio-economic, technological and cultural development countries. It is on the basis of them that the strategic interests of the state are determined. international arena. Decisions made in various state administrative structures must be fully consistent with the overall strategic line of the state.
A political decision is one of the most important tools for managing society, and in this regard it must meet the interests of the entire society and become a real embodiment of the key principle of politics as the art of the possible. Among the many political decisions taken in the state, one can highlight various kinds of laws, regulations, decrees, orders executive bodies, results of popular votes in parliamentary, presidential and other elections, etc.
Lecture 12
Control questions and job protection
Methodology and procedure for performing work
Equipment and materials
To perform laboratory work, the following equipment and materials are required:
A personal computer containing a microprocessor model Intel 804486 or higher;
Hard magnetic disk with a capacity of 1 GB or higher;
Operating system of the Windows family, version no lower than 98;
EXCEL spreadsheet processor.
1. Turn on the computer.
2. Download the EXCEL program.
3. Create three payroll sheets for departments, respectively: department1, department2, department3 on three sheets in one book of the following form:
The table must have 10 records.
On the following sheet, create a pivot table:
Summary statement of issue wages employees of Computer World LLC
4.Save the book in your folder, choose a name randomly.
1.Form of the report – written.
2.Describe the work performed when performing laboratory work.
3.Demonstrate this work on PC.
4. Answer security questions.
1.Tell us about the method of transferring data from one table to another?
2.What is the difference between the method of copying data using the Edit and Copy commands from the method discussed in this laboratory work?
3. How to multiply values throughout the entire pivot table?
4. How can I use the Function Wizard to use the formula for calculating the average value?
5 What other options does the Function Wizard provide?
1) Political activity.
2) Political leadership.
3) Typology of leaders.
1) Political activity. The functioning of a political system is the process of action of its subjects: state institutions, parties, public organizations, elites, leaders and all citizens. The state, for example, as M. Weber noted, is a complex of specific joint actions of people.
The concept of activity covers all the variety of forms of people’s active relationship to the world around them - natural and social, including the expedient change of it in accordance with human needs. Each sphere of social life (economic, social, spiritual, etc.) is characterized by a set of forms and activities inherent in it, as well as social relations.
A special place is occupied by political activity, which constitutes the main content of the political sphere of life. Political activity is a set of organized actions of subjects both within the political system and outside it, subordinate to the implementation of common social interests and goals. At its core, political activity is the leadership and management of social relations with the help of institutions of power. Its essence is the management of people, human communities.
The specific content of political activity is: participation in state affairs, determining the forms, tasks and directions of state activity, distribution of power, control over its activities, as well as other influence on political institutions. Each of the noted points summarizes diverse types of activities: the direct performance by people of political functions within the framework of institutions of state power and political parties and indirect participation associated with the delegation of powers to certain institutions; professional and non-professional activities; leadership and executive activities aimed at strengthening a given political system or, on the contrary, at its destruction; institutionalized or non-institutionalized activities (for example, extremism); systemic or extra-systemic, etc. M. Weber, speaking about the composition of political activity, emphasized, first of all, the activity of maintaining order in the country, i.e., “existing relations of domination.”
If we talk about the institutions that are part of the political system, then the activities of each of them have natural characteristics and, above all, different means of achieving them. Every political and public institution essentially represents a certain system of activities.
The essence of political activity is revealed in the specifics of its object and structural elements: subject, goals, means, conditions, knowledge, motivation and, finally, the process of activity itself.
The direct object of political activity is political values, institutions, the political system as a whole and the social groups, parties, elites, and leaders behind them.
The sphere of political activity does not include society as a whole, not social-class relations in all possible aspects, but only the relations of society, social groups, classes, strata, elites to the institutions of political power and the latter to society.
The action of an individual person acquires political meaning insofar as it is included in the system public relations and is an element of group activity. There is another point of view on the content of political activity. According to M. Weber, political action (like any social action, can be understood only on the basis of the behavior of individual people.
Unlike other subjects of social action, the subject of political activity is characterized, first of all, by the fact that he always acts as an organized (in one form or another degree) social force. The political forces operating in a given situation, in a given political process, are always one way or another organized social groups, classes, strata, national communities, and finally, international associations ( state unions, movements, etc.). Political action in any case is the action of groups of people (and not separate, isolated individuals), united by a certain common goal and guided by general rules"games". Highest form Organizations of political activity are political institutions, including the state and political parties.
2) Political leadership. The unequal position of participants in political life in the political hierarchy is due to their varying degrees of proximity to power and the ability to make strategic decisions, as well as the ability to influence social change. Even within the elite, its individual representatives differ from others in their priority in terms of their influence on society. A person who has a constant and decisive influence on society, the state, or an organization is called a political leader. The tasks of leaders include developing agreed development goals, distributing functions and roles among participants social interactions, streamlining the behavior of integral elements of the system in order to increase the efficiency of the functioning of society as a whole. Thus, the actual significance of the leadership problem is associated with the search for effective forms of leadership and management of social processes.
Leadership theories. Public leadership is social function, conditioned by a person’s ability to consciously set generally significant goals and determine ways to achieve them within the framework of the political institutions created for this. Specific forms and methods of exercising leadership depend on the cultural maturity of society, the level of autonomy of various interest groups, and awareness of the need for collective action to maintain progress. social system generally.
You can understand the phenomenon of leadership and its evolution by analyzing its components: 1) the character of the leader; 2) his political beliefs; 3) motivation for political activity; 4) the properties of his supporters and all political subjects interacting with him; 5) the specific historical situation of the leader’s rise to power; 6) technology for exercising leadership. A holistic and multifaceted picture of the manifestation of leadership develops as society evolves and becomes more complex social relationships, updating specific functions of the leader.
In primitive In societies, the functions of a leader are weak and are reduced mainly to ensuring the physical survival of community members. The leaders themselves appear as heroes, endowed with special physical qualities and moral virtues. Thus, Plato portrayed a leader as a person with an innate inclination towards knowledge, distinguished by a decisive rejection of lies and a love of truth. According to him, a leader is characterized by modesty, nobility, justice, generosity, and spiritual perfection.
The ethical-mythological tradition in the analysis of political leadership retained its influence in the Middle Ages, introducing into it the idea of leaders being chosen by God, in contrast to mere mortals.
N. Machiavelli moved the problem of political leadership from the realm of the imaginary and the proper to the plane of real life. In his works “The Prince” and “Reflections on the First Decade of Titus Livius,” he defined the nature, functions and technology of leadership. The character of the leader N. Machiavelli derived from the interaction between the ruler and his subjects. A wise leader combines the qualities of a lion (strength and honesty) and the qualities of a fox (mystification and skillful dissimulation). Therefore, he has both innate and acquired qualities. By nature, a person is given less than he receives by living in society. He is straightforward, cunning or talented by birth, but ambition, greed, vanity, cowardice are formed in the process of socialization of the individual.
The incentive for active activity is dissatisfaction. The fact is that people always want more, but they cannot always achieve it. The gap between what is desired and what is actually created creates a dangerous tension that can break a person, make him greedy, envious and insidious, since the desire to receive exceeds our strength, and opportunities are always in short supply. The result is dissatisfaction with what a person already owns. N. Machiavelli called this state dissatisfaction. It is she who helps turn what is desired into reality.
The role of a leader in society is determined by the functions that he is called upon to perform. Among the most important functions N. Machiavelli singled out provision public order and stability in society; integration of diverse interests and mobilization of the population to solve generally significant problems. In general, N. Machiavelli’s theory of leadership is built on four provisions (variables): 1) the leader’s power is rooted in the support of his supporters; 2) subordinates must know what they can expect from their leader and understand what he expects from them; 3) the leader must have the will to survive; 4) the ruler is always an example of wisdom and justice for his supporters.
Subsequently, leadership researchers Special attention focused on certain components of this multifaceted phenomenon: either on the traits and origin of the leader; or on the social context of his leadership, that is, the social conditions of coming to power and exercising leadership; or on the nature of the relationship between the leader and his supporters; or the results of interactions between the leader and his followers in certain situations. The emphasis in the analysis of leadership on one or another variable led to an ambiguous interpretation of this phenomenon and initiated the emergence of a number of theories that examined the nature of leadership. Among the most common and generally accepted theories of leadership are: trait theory, situation analysis theory, situational personality theory, integrative leadership theory.
IN trait theories (K. Beard, E. Bogardus, Y. Jennings etc.) a leader is considered as a set of certain psychological traits, the presence of which contributes to his promotion to a leading position and gives him the ability to make power decisions in relation to other people.
Trait theory arose at the beginning of the 20th century. influenced by the research of the English anthropologist F. Galton, who explained the nature of leadership from the standpoint of heredity. The main idea of this approach is the assertion that if a leader has special qualities that distinguish him from his followers, then these qualities can be distinguished. These qualities are inherited.
Top officials are perceived as exceptional in the meaning of the dominant political culture and mentality, and the population attributes certain virtues to them. The psychological interpretation of leadership also focuses on the motivation of the leader’s behavior. A manifestation of extreme psychologism in understanding the nature of leadership is the concept of psychoanalysis by 3. Freud, who interpreted political leadership as a sphere of manifestation of suppressed libido - an unconscious desire of a sexual nature.
An analysis of the destructive type of political behavior with features of masochism and sadism was given by the American psychologist E. Fromm in his work “Necrophiles and Adolf Hitler.” Using the method of psychobiography, E. Fromm traced, starting from early childhood, the process of formation of the destructive political leadership of the leader of Nazi Germany.
However, isolating the phenomenon of leadership from the totality of psychological traits of a person or from his motivations and motives (conscious and unconscious) is not able to answer questions of a practical nature related to the characteristics of specific leaders.
The theory tried to overcome the psychological interpretation of leadership situational analysis , according to which a leader appears as a result of a combination of circumstances of place, time and others. In the life of the group in different situations individual individuals are identified who are superior to others in at least one quality. And since this particular quality is in demand under the current conditions, a person who possesses it becomes a leader. Situational leadership theory views the leader as a function of a particular situation, emphasizing the relativity of the traits inherent in a leader, and suggesting that qualitatively different circumstances may require qualitatively different leaders.
Attempts to avoid extremes in the interpretation of the phenomenon of leadership (either from the position of trait theory or within the framework of the theory of situational analysis) objectively required expanding the boundaries of the analysis of factors in the formation of leading positions and determining the content of power influence. These attempts led to the emergence of the personal-situational theory. Her Supporters personal-situational theory (G. Gert and S. Mills) tried to overcome the shortcomings of the above theories. Among the variables of leadership that allow us to understand its nature, they identified four factors: 1) the traits and motives of the leader as a person; 2) images of the leader and motives that exist in the minds of his followers, encouraging them to follow him; 3) characteristics of the leader's role; 4) legal and institutional conditions for its activities.
American political scientist Margaret J. Hermann expanded the number of variables that, in her opinion, allow us to more deeply reveal the essence of leadership, including: 1) the basic political beliefs of the leader; 2) the political style of the leader; 3) the motives that guide the leader; 4) the leader’s reaction to pressure and stress; 5) the circumstances due to which the leader first found himself in the position of leader; 6) previous political experience of the leader; 7) the political climate in which the leader began his political career.
Thus, political science has moved from one-sided psychologism in the analysis of leadership to a more holistic study of this phenomenon using sociological approaches.
The sociological interpretation of the nature of leadership focuses more on the analysis of the interaction between the leader and his followers. It allows us to identify the technology of effective leadership and understand the logic of the leader’s political behavior.
Within the framework of the integrative approach, motivational concepts of leadership and theories that focus on the specifics of political styles have recently dominated. The latter direction allows us to identify the predictability of the actions of a political leader and their possible effectiveness.
Despite differences in the interpretation of leadership, in understanding its nature, it is considered as a constant, priority influence of the individual on society or a group. This influence depends on a number of variables: on psychological personality traits, on the nature of the relationship between the leader and his supporters, on the motivation of leadership behavior and the behavior of his supporters.
3) Typology of leaders and their functions. Manifestations of leadership are quite varied. Attempts to classify and typologize them are caused by the desire to predict the likely behavior of leaders based on certain characteristics.
A typology of leadership based on taking into account the personal qualities of the leader and the specific situation in which he performs his functions was proposed by the German sociologist M. Weber in his work “Charismatic Dominance.” As a classification feature, he put forward the concept of “authority,” which he defines as “the likelihood that orders will be obeyed.” certain group of people". The ability to give orders and expect them to be carried out is based on various power resources. Accordingly, M. Weber identified three types of domination - traditional, rational-legal, charismatic.
Traditional Leadership relies on customs and traditions, the force of habit, which are rooted in the distant past. The habit of submission is based on the belief in the sanctity of the tradition of transferring power by inheritance: the leader acquires the right to dominance due to his origin. This is the type of authority that was once enjoyed by the leader of a tribe, the head of a clan, or a monarch.
Charismatic Leadership based on faith in the chosenness of the individual, in the exceptional qualities of this person. Charismatic power, noted M. Weber, “is characterized by the personal devotion of subjects to a person and their faith only in his personality, which is distinguished by outstanding qualities, heroism or other distinctive properties that turn him into a leader.” Charismatic leadership is inherent in transitional societies carrying out modernization, therefore charismatic dominance can create conditions either for traditional power (for example, for a return to the institution of monarchy) or for rational-legal power. The peculiarity of charismatic power is that it is devoid of any objective foundations (for example, it is not based on law, tradition), but exists solely due to the personal qualities of the charismatic leader and faith in him.
Rational-legal leadership represents bureaucracy. The power of authority is recognized by virtue of “legality”, by virtue of belief in legality legal status and “competence” based on rationally established laws. Power is based on a single set of legal norms accepted by the entire society. The competence of each holder of power is determined by the constitution and legal norms.
One of the most modern and widespread typologies of leaders is M. Hermann’s system, which classifies leaders based on image. M. Hermann identifies four images of leaders based on taking into account four variables: the character of the leader; properties of his supporters; ways of relationship between the leader and his supporters; specific situation in which leadership is exercised.
The first collective image of a leader is standard-bearer leader . He is distinguished by his own view of reality, the presence of an image of the desired future and knowledge of the means to achieve it. Such a leader determines the nature of what is happening, the pace and methods of transformation. Standard-bearing leaders include M. Gandhi, V.I. Lenin, Martin L. King and others.
The second collective image of the leader is servant leader. It achieves recognition through the expression of the interests of its adherents. The leader acts on their behalf, he is the agent of the group. In practice, a servant leader is guided by what is expected of him, what his constituents believe and need (L.I. Brezhnev, K.U. Chernenko).
Third image - leader-dealer. Its essential feature is its ability to persuade. He achieves recognition from his supporters by knowing their needs and desire to satisfy them. Through the power of persuasion, the sales leader involves followers in the implementation of his plans. R. Reagan can be considered an example of this type of leader.
Fourth image - firefighter leader. What makes him different is fast reaction to the pressing demands of the time, formulated by its supporters. He is able to act effectively in extreme conditions, quickly make decisions, and respond adequately to the situation. Most leaders in modern societies can be classified as precisely this type.
The identification of four collective images of leaders is quite arbitrary, since in pure form these types are rare. Most often, the leadership of one individual at various stages of his political career combines certain properties of each of the listed ideal types.
Recently, classifications of leaders by behavioral style have become dominant. Five political styles can be distinguished according to the degree of dominance of certain qualities: paranoid, demonstrative, compulsive, depressive and schizoid , although in history there are leaders who combine several styles.
Paranoid political style. It corresponds to the type of leader who can be designated by the term “master”. Such a person is characterized by suspicion, distrust of others, hypersensitivity to hidden threats and motives, and a constant thirst for power and control over other people. His behavior and actions are often unpredictable. A paranoid style politician does not accept any point of view other than his own, rejects any information that does not confirm his theories, attitudes and beliefs (I.V. Stalin, Ivan the Terrible).
Demonstrative political style characteristic of the type of leader who can be called an “artist”, since he always “plays to the public.” He is distinguished by a love of demonstrations, he is overwhelmed by a passionate desire to please, to constantly attract attention to himself. In many ways, his behavior and political actions depend on whether others like him, whether he is loved by the crowd or not. As a result, he is quite “controllable”, predictable, and can lose his vigilance after listening to enough flatterers. However, he may lose his composure when faced with criticism (A.F. Kerensky, L.D. Trotsky, V.V. Zhirinovsky).
Compulsive political style usually characteristic of a leader, whose collective image can be described by the term “excellent student.” He has an almost obsessive desire to do everything in the best possible way, regardless of the possibilities. His style of behavior is characterized by tension, lack of ease, flexibility, and maneuver. He is constantly preoccupied, petty, too punctual, and has a dogmatic approach to all instructions and rules, which often causes conflicts in power structures. An “excellent” student feels especially uncomfortable in extreme conditions, when it is necessary to quickly make decisions and use non-standard methods. (L.I. Brezhnev).
Depressive political style personifies "comrade". A leader of this type is not capable of playing a leading role and therefore tries to unite with those who can really “do politics.” The “companion” often idealizes individuals and political movements, while he himself trails behind events. It does not have a clear political course or sustainable approaches to solving emerging problems. He accepts political reality warily and pessimistically, revealing weakness and political lack of will (Nicholas II).
Schizoid political style closely related to depression. He is represented by a “loner” leader. Self-isolation and self-removal from participation in specific events are more distinct. The “loner” does not want to join any particular movement and prefers the position of an outside observer. But political responsibility in this case is practically absent. The schizoid style of behavior is historically transitory, less independent and ineffective. A “loner” leader, as he participates in political life and expands his powers of power, transforms his style, adding to it the features of a paranoid and demonstrative style. A similar change in political style was characteristic of the political biography of V.I. Lenin (before the revolution of 1917 - “loner”, and after it the features of “master” and “artist” were added).
The indicated political styles identified as “ideal” are quite rare; they act as trends. They are determined by the mentality and culture of society, including stable ideas about the desired model of society and the role of the leader in it, about the preferred ways to solve emerging problems. Policy styles differ markedly due to the diversity of national cultures various countries. The type of dominant culture also determines the nature of political orientations characteristic of leaders.
