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Why testing is an ongoing and ongoing process, not a one-time event. Continuous process Continuous process

Metallurgists have long been looking for ways to move to a continuous process, which is much easier to automate. If blast-furnace and rolling production are to some extent continuous, then cyclicity is pronounced in steelmaking. Therefore, there is a large gap between steelmaking and rolling production.

Ingots obtained after a long process of melting and laborious casting harden in the molds, are subjected to exposure and require additional heating for rolling.

One of the intermediate links between the redistribution of ferrous metals is the continuous casting of blanks. So far, only blanks for rolling are produced on a continuous casting machine (CCM), but this already brings significant metal savings and allows you to abandon the expensive blooming mill, not to mention the elimination hard work ditches and pourers.

Continuous casting of metal was developed by Soviet scientists and introduced for the first time at domestic plants.

In the USSR, ferrous metallurgy enterprises poured 5.9 million tons of steel in 1972, and 9 million tons of steel in 1975. Casting of more than 120 grades of steel has been mastered, including boiling for auto sheet and tin, electrical, alloyed and high-alloyed. Ladles with a capacity of up to 200 tons, square ingots up to 350X350 mm and slabs up to 250X 1800 mm.

The pride of the Soviet metallurgy is the CCM of the Novolipetsk Metallurgical Plant. There, in 1959, for the first time in the world practice, a large electric steel-smelting shop began to work with steel casting only at the CCM. In 1966, the converter shop was put into operation, also with full casting at the CCM. Thus, this plant became the first plant in the world that does not have in its composition swaging mills and pouring metal into molds. For the creation and development in Lipetsk of a large industrial complex casting of converter steel into wide range slabs was awarded to a group of metallurgists State Prize 1969

The new converter shop in Lipetsk as part of the first stage has five continuous casting machines; through the machines, bypassing the molds.

The department of continuous casting in Lipetsk has machines of radial and curvilinear types, which greatly reduces the cost of production. Possibility of casting of slabs of big sections 250-350X1150-2200 mm is provided. The length of the continuous casting machine makes it possible to produce slabs with a thickness of 250 mm with a linear drawing speed of up to 1.7 m/min, and with a thickness of 300 mm - up to 1.2 m/min. The mechanisms of the machine provide a pouring speed of 0.1-1.6 m/min. It is planned to pour steel by the "melt-for-melt" method.

However, although the productivity of oxygen converters is high, experts believe that it is possible to double it by switching to a continuous blowing process and eliminate the loss of time for such operations as loading the charge, finishing the melt and tapping it. And how to implement it?

Is it possible to abandon converters altogether, to switch to continuous steel-smelting units on a new technological basis?

Continuous steelmaking has the important advantage over oxy-converter melting combined with the production of blast-furnace pig iron, that the continuous process can be applied with high efficiency and on a relatively small scale of metal production.

The technical prerequisites for the expediency and feasibility of a continuous steel production process are becoming clearer to metallurgists.

This process is considered as the most promising method of steel smelting. Experimental work have been conducted for many years in the USSR, USA, England, France, Japan and other countries.

The steelmaking process is then divided into successive stages, each of which is a link in the production line. In doing so, you can create best conditions for all physical and chemical transformations, to apply a narrow specialization of equipment and use it in a constant most profitable mode. The process is easy to automate - to maintain the specified unchanged modes of operation of each link. The possibilities of intensifying the process, increasing the capacity of the units are unlimited, since neither one nor the other causes a deterioration in product quality.

The most interesting foreign options are presented in the projects of the British Iron and Steel Research Association (BISRA) and the French Iron and Steel Research Institute (IRSID).

The technological principle of the BISRA process consists in spraying a falling iron jet with hard oxygen jets with rapid oxidation of its impurities. A pilot plant of this variant is operating in England. It is located directly at the chute of the blast furnace and is put into operation during the production of pig iron. Three industrial units were built with a capacity of up to 80 t/h.

In France, a large laboratory plant with a capacity of 10-12 t/h is operating at the IRSID pilot plant, and at a plant in Lorraine - with a capacity of 30 t/h. The IRSID process is carried out in the unit, where cast iron is supplied in a continuous stream. The metal is blown with oxygen, then the slag and metal are separated, the steel is brought to the desired composition and deoxidized. The results of experiments and calculations showed that in a continuous unit it is possible to obtain steels up to 80-100 t/h. The installation can be placed in the existing open-hearth shop.

Great hopes were placed on a continuous steelmaking unit (SAND), developed by a group of scientists from the Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys. Given the large capacity of open-hearth shops, Professor M. A. Glinkov believed that it was advisable to use continuous hearth processes based on the use of existing equipment of these shops and on the remelting of charge containing 40-45% scrap.

Instead of one open-hearth furnace, there are four small furnaces connected to each other (four baths in one building). Cast iron and scrap are loaded into the first, excess carbon is burned off into the second, and steel is brought to the desired chemical composition for the remaining impurities in the third, deoxidation and alloying take place in the fourth. Entering the next bath, new portions of the metal, colder, sink to the bottom and displace the finished metal through the side into the next bath. This process is promoted by active mixing by gases. The duration of the entire cycle - from pouring iron to the release of finished steel - 40-50 minutes (the duration of open-hearth melting is 4-6 hours). Such a unit produces more products than four open-hearth furnaces of the same capacity, but operating according to the old principle.

A prototype design designed by the Stal-Proekt Institute is being tested under industrial conditions at the Zaporizhstal plant.

According to estimates, the successful development of the SAND idea would make it possible to increase the productivity of metallurgical units by a factor of three and drastically reduce the cost of production.

So far, the share of steel smelted by a continuous method in the world metallurgy is small. Decade 1970-1980 will be the period of inclusion of continuous processes in industrial production. The authors of the set of international forecasts "The World in 2000" predict that in 1980 continuous steel production will be introduced according to the scheme: iron ore - semi-finished products; in 1985 - no-domain steel production processes were introduced on an industrial scale.

The high capital intensity and labor intensity of ferrous metallurgy increases economic importance increasing the capacity of the units. However, large-capacity units require extensive production areas, and each ton of annual production requires more than 15 tons of materials to be transported inside the plant. The introduction of conveyor transport, the transition to continuous production of pig iron from a blast furnace, the use of induction devices for the continuous transportation of liquid metal will contribute to the growth of labor productivity, will increase the degree of automation and reduce factory space by 10-15%.

The next task is to create a metallurgical plant with continuous processes of the entire production, from the extraction of ore to the release of finished products.

There are various projects for connecting all three stages of the metallurgical cycle into a single stream.

Now the smelting of liquid metal is carried out in some units, processing - in others, and solidification and rolling - in the third. Factory automatic separate processes must be interconnected by inter-workshop transport of liquid metal - controlled issuance of a continuous jet into molds or small portions of metal into molds of a foundry machine.

In the USSR, work is underway on an electromagnetic device for pumping liquid metals. In recent years, a path has been traveled from models to pilot plants to test the reality of the assumption. In 1961, at the automobile plant. Likhachev, an experimental electromagnetic chute was successfully tested for transporting liquid iron horizontally or upwards against a slight slope. At the end of 1962, the first tests of an induction pump for lifting liquid iron under pressure were successfully carried out at the Central Research Institute of Chemistry. The creation of a reliable induction pump for metal will make it possible to replace the blast hole with such a pump. Then the blast furnace can be included in a continuous stream.

Other continuous process schemes are also possible, in which either existing metallurgical processes are combined on a new technological basis, or blast furnace production is excluded. Thus, Academician B. E. Paton imagines a metallurgical plant of the future in the form of an automated continuous operation unit with continuous casting plants, rolling mills, and high-performance welding machines. The metallurgical plant of the future, in his opinion, is also a plant for metal structures. Welding processes will allow metallurgists to create new types of rolled products - multilayer sheets, profiles with a variety of properties.

It is still difficult to judge the advantages of any scheme of a continuous metallurgical process. Further development and operation of different methods will reveal the advantages and disadvantages of each of them, will contribute to the creation of a perfect metallurgical plant of the future, based on the principle of continuous operation. There are searches for ways to implement an integrated cycle of continuous metallurgical production from the preparation of ore to the receipt of finished rolled products.

Energy in processes

A few years ago, experiments began on welding niobium, molybdenum, tungsten, zirconium. This was an urgent need for aircraft, rocket science and nuclear energy. In a hot state, all these metals greedily suck in gases and all sorts of foreign substances. The weld metal becomes brittle, the seam itself becomes unreliable. We needed sterility, a vacuum, we needed some other source of heating. Where to get it?

The decision did not come immediately. Several proposals were made and rejected. Then they remembered that X-ray tubes mysteriously fail from time to time. Most often, the anode burns out at the tube, burns out and even evaporates, although it consists of heat-resistant metal. Scientists knew what heat-resistant metal burned: a stream of electrons rushing between the anode and cathode. The mechanism of this phenomenon has been known for a long time: the flow of accelerated electrons carries a lot of energy. When an electron stops, its kinetic energy is converted into thermal energy. And when the anode of the tube was not cooled, the electrons melted and even evaporated it.

This phenomenon was the basis of electron beam welding. It was necessary to create an installation that would form a very thin accelerated electron flow. Such an installation was created and called it an electron beam gun.

The first welding experiments were successful. The seam turned out to be strong, the accuracy of joining refractory metals is high.

The electron gun was also used in metallurgy. ... A rod of heat-resistant alloy hangs in a chamber with a very high vacuum. An invisible electron beam melts the tip of the rod. Metal droplets fall down, the vacuum instantly snatches out harmful impurities: oxygen, carbon, nitrogen; non-metallic inclusions evaporate intensively. The purified metal falls into a cooled copper mold, which does not contaminate the metal with impurities. An ingot is formed in it especially pure metal or alloy.

Such is electron beam melting - one of the types of special electrotechnology in metallurgy. The emergence of new technological processes in metallurgy is associated with the use of electricity. Here we mean electroslag, plasma-arc and electron-beam remelting. Their appearance is quite natural in connection with the growing requirements for the quality of the metal. However, for these processes it is necessary to obtain the original product in some other way, so they are not suitable for mass production of the metal. A more promising direction may be plasma melting, which makes it possible to melt various steels, refractory alloys and carry out ore-thermal processes associated with the direct production of metal from ores.

Research in the field of plasma studies has led to the creation of plasma installations using the so-called low-temperature plasma with a temperature of 10000-20000°C. The plasma jet can be relatively easily and accurately controlled over a wide range. For example, you can change the temperature from thousands to tens of thousands of degrees, and power - from kilowatts to megawatts.

The use of low temperature plasma is one of the most promising directions electronic technology.

Metallurgists became interested in two areas in the use of plasma: smelting special alloys, steels and refractory materials in plasma furnaces and the development of ore-thermal processes associated with the direct production of metals from ores.

Plasma metallurgy will increase the rate of chemical reactions in steelmaking processes. American specialists report the development of a plasma melting method that is five times faster than conventional methods. This produces high quality steel, free from inclusions and impurities, with a low content of gases.

It is possible to use very hot plasma, which scientists around the world are working on. So far, plasma with a temperature of the order of a million degrees can be kept in a stable state for tenths of a second. To keep hot plasma for a long period of time means to create a controlled thermonuclear reaction. This event will open a new era of energy.

Metallurgy will receive heat sources with any required temperature.

The use of plasma for the processing of ore raw materials, the extraction of metals from ores, the smelting of metals and alloys conceals deep possibilities for the implementation scientific and technological revolution in metallurgy.

With periodic processes, all stages are carried out sequentially in one apparatus, in continuous processes - simultaneously in different apparatuses. Also known are combinators. processes. These include continuous processes, separate stages of which are carried out periodically (semi-continuous processes), or periodic processes, when certain stages proceed continuously (semi-periodic processes). T. naz. the degree of continuity of the process is determined by the ratio t / Dt, where t is the time required to complete all stages of the process from the moment of loading the initial materials to the unloading of finished products; Dt-period of the process, i.e. time from the start of loading the source materials of this batch to the start of loading the source materials next. parties. For periodic processes Dt > 0, t/Dt< 1; для непрерывных процессов Dt 0, t/Dt. Движущая сила любого процесса -разность между предельным numerical value c.-l. parameter and its actual value, e.g. for chem. processes - the difference between the equilibrium a and working x concentrations of c.-l. reagent .

Continuously operating devices, depending on the nature of the change in parameters, are divided into devices of ideal displacement, ideal mixing and probetween. type (main group of actually functioning industrial devices). In apparatuses of the first type, during the process, the concentration of the reagent (and, consequently, the driving force) decreases monotonically (Fig. 1a); at the same time, the speed of the process decreases, as well as the productivity of the apparatus; the average driving force is defined as the average logarithm. value.

In an ideal mixing apparatus, the concentration changes almost instantly and the driving force remains constant throughout the entire process and is equal to its final and, therefore, the smallest value (Fig. 1b). In devices of periodic action is the driving force of the process and,hence, its speed is monotonically decreasing. The nature of the change in concentration in the apparatus determines not only the speed of the process and the productivity per unit volume of the apparatus, but also the selectivity of the process. So, if as a result of interaction. components, the target product X is obtained, which can then turn into an undesirable product. products Y and Z, then the number of X will be the smaller, the more the nature of the change in the driving force in this apparatus differs from the nature of its change in the devices of ideal displacement and periodic. actions. The implementation of processes in the apparatus of ideal mixing and intermediate. type (Fig. 1, c) promotes the formation of Y and Z and, so arr., determines a generally lower selectivity than in ideal displacement devices.

Rice. 1. Dependence of reagent concentration on time t (or device length l) in continuous devices: a - for the ideal displacement apparatus; b-for the device perfect mixing; in-for the apparatus of the intermediate type; x n and x to - initial and final concentrations of the reagent; x" n - working concentration, taking into account partial mixing; Dx cf is the average driving force of the process.

The ratio of the driving forces in the apparatus of ideal mixing and displacement, equal to the ratio of the completion time of the process in the apparatus of ideal displacement and ideal mixing, respectively, is called. concentration efficiency chemical-technol. device.

Continuously operating apparatus interm. type-complex hydraulic. system. However, it can be represented as a group (cascade) of series-connected ideal mixing apparatuses. In this case, the number of pseudosections in the cascade n (the main characteristic of the apparatus) and other process parameters are calculated using the laws of formal kinetics or determined experimentally by washing out the labeling substance (see Tracer method). To determine n, a graph is built (Fig. 2), on which the theoretical is also drawn. curves corresponding to the equation

where n \u003d 1, 2, 3, etc., and find such a value of n, for which the theoretical. and experiment. curves are superimposed. Concentrate efficiency in the case of a cascade of ideal mixing apparatuses increases with an increase in the number of sections (number of apparatuses) in the cascade and decreases with an increase in the degree of conversion of the components and the order of the p-tion.

The advantages of continuous processes compared to batch processes: the possibility of increasing the productivity of a unit volume of equipment as a result of eliminating auxiliary. stages (loading

raw materials and unloading of finished products); stability of modes of conducting; more complete use of the supplied or removed heat in the absence of interruptions in the operation of the apparatus; the possibility of heat recovery (for example, waste gases); more high quality products; greater compactness of the equipment and acc. smaller capital and operational. expenses (for maintenance, repairs, etc.); the possibility of more complete mechanization and much easier automation of control. However, in some cases periodic processes are more appropriate. So, for a clear distinction

6 responses

A persistent process is a process that is in a system call (kernel function) and cannot be interrupted by a signal.

To understand what this means, you need to understand the concept of an interruptible system call. The classic example is read() . This is a system call that can take a long time (seconds) because it may involve spinning up a hard drive or moving heads. During most of this time, the process will sleep, blocking the hardware.

While a process is sleeping in a system call, it can receive an asynchronous Unix signal (say SIGTERM), then the following happens:

System calls complete prematurely and are configured to return -EINTR to user space.
Signal handler completed.
If the process is still running, it receives the return value from the system call and can repeat the same call.

An early return from a system call allows user-space code to immediately change its behavior in response to a signal. For example, completes cleanly in response to SIGINT or SIGTERM.

On the other hand, some system calls cannot be interrupted this way. If for any reason the system causes a shutdown, the process can remain in that state indefinitely.

When a process is in user mode, it can be terminated at any time (transition to kernel mode). When the kernel returns to user mode, it checks for pending signals (including those used to kill a process, such as SIGTERM and SIGKILL). This means that the process can only be killed when returning to user mode.

The reason a process cannot be killed in kernel mode is that it can potentially corrupt the kernel structures used by all other processes on the same machine (just as killing a thread can potentially corrupt the data structures used by other threads on that machine). same process).

When the kernel needs to do something that might take a long time (waiting on a pipe written by another process, or waiting for the hardware to do something, for example), it sleeps, marking itself as sleeping and calling the scheduler to switch to another process ( if there is no sleepless process, it switches to a "dummy" process which tells the processor to slow down a bit and sits in a loop loop).

If a signal is sent to a sleeping process, it must be woken up before it returns to user space and thus handles the pending signal. Here we have a distinction between two main types of sleep:

TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE , intermittent sleep. If the task is marked with this flag, it sleeps, but can be awakened by signals. This means that the code that marks the task as sleeping is waiting for a possible signal, and after it wakes up, it will check for it and return from the system call. After the signal has been processed, the system call can be automatically restarted (and I won't go into details on how this works).
TASK_UNINTERRUPTIBLE , uninterrupted sleep. If a task is marked with this flag, it does not expect to be woken up by anything other than what it expects, either because it cannot be restarted or because programs expect the system call to be atomic. This can also be used for sleeps that are known to be very short.

TASK_KILLABLE (mentioned in the LWN article linked to by ddaa's answer) is a new option.

This answers your first question. As for your second question: you can't avoid aimless sleep, that's a common thing (this happens, for example, every time a process reads/writes from/to disk); however, they should only last a fraction of a second. If they last much longer, it usually means a hardware problem (or a device driver problem, which is analogous to the kernel) where the device driver is expecting the hardware to do something that will never happen. It can also mean that you are using NFS and the NFS server is not available (it is waiting for the server to be restored, you can also use the "intr" option to avoid the problem).

Finally, the reason you can't restore is the same reason that the kernel waits until it returns to user mode to deliver a signal or kill the process: it would potentially corrupt kernel data structures (waiting code in intermittent sleep could get an error which tells it to return to user space, where the process can be killed, waiting in uninterrupted sleep wait code does not expect any error).

Non-interruptible processes USUALLY wait for I/O after a page fault.

Consider this:

The thread is trying to access a page that is not in the kernel (an executable that is loaded on demand, an anonymous memory page that has been paged out, or an "mmap()" file that is loaded on demand, which is pretty much the same)
The kernel is now (trying to) load it into
The process cannot continue until the page is available.

The process/task cannot be interrupted in this state because it cannot handle any signals; if it did, another page fault would occur and it would go back to where it was.

When I say "process" I really mean "task", which under Linux (2.6) roughly translates to "thread", which may or may not have a separate "thread group" entry in /proc

In some cases, it can wait a long time. A typical example of this would be if the executable or mmap"d file is on a network filesystem where the server has failed. If the I/O fails, the task will continue. If it eventually fails, the task will typically will receive SIGBUS or something else.

Is it possible that a program could be written to initiate a process that goes into the TASK_UNINTERUPTIBLE state whenever the system is not in an idle state, thereby forcing data collection while waiting to be transferred after the super user exits? This would be a golden moment for hackers to get information, revert to a zombie state, and pass the information through the network at idle. Some might argue that this is one way to create a Blackdoor for the powers that be, to enter and exit any system at will. I strongly believe this loophole can be sealed for good by eliminating the TASK_UNINTERUPTIBLE state.

Continuous processes occurring in continuous devices are characterized by non-stop loading of the device with raw materials and continuous production. These processes, which allow for maximum mechanization, are increasingly being introduced into the practice of large pharmaceutical manufacturing enterprises. An example of a continuous process is the drying of extracts on roller or spray dryers. Continuous processes allow full mechanization and automation of production, which reduces the use of manual labor to a minimum.

Continuous technological processes, as a rule, are characterized by the fact that the raw materials and the finished product are in a liquid, gaseous or granular state. Therefore, the transportation of raw materials and products at all stages of its production is carried out continuously. The most characteristic production with a continuous technological process is a chemical plant, where natural gas is processed in special apparatuses, which moves continuously from the beginning to the end of the technological process.

Continuous technological processes are distinguished by the fact that, as a rule, raw materials and semi-finished products are fed for processing continuously for a sufficiently long time, often they come from one stage to another without intermediate storage with a delay only for the time of transportation

Continuous technological processes are applied in isolation for each of the operations. Since the processing methods themselves are inherently continuous, the possibility of using continuous technological processes is determined by the possibility of replacing workpieces without interrupting the processing process. Thus, the possibility of building continuous technological processes depends primarily on the nature of the blanks and the type of tool. The pipe welding mill of spiral pipe welding is a machine with a continuous technological process, since the welding of seams and the helical movement of the material being processed from.

Continuous technological processes of chemical and petrochemical industries involve the use of air coolers at constant temperature and pressure parameters of cooled or condensed streams. To ensure stable cooling parameters, control systems, humidification, combined cooling schemes, etc. are used. However, parameters such as ambient air temperature ti, fan volumetric performance VB and cooling air velocity uuz change during different periods of operation. The change in t is due to annual, seasonal and daily temperature fluctuations. During long-term operation, the value of UEC changes in the direction of decrease as the aerodynamic resistance of the heat exchange sections increases.

A continuous technological process is a process in which processed materials or products are transferred in a continuous flow from one technological apparatus (machine) to another. Continuous processes, as a rule, are performed on various technological devices, and discontinuous processes are performed on technological machines.

The introduction of continuous technological processes makes it possible to solve a complex of problems and, above all, to increase the level of mechanization and automation of production and, on this basis, reduce the labor intensity of production, and qualitatively change the social working conditions.

For a continuous technological process introduced in the textile and light industry, DC motors are often required, for example: they are installed in finishing production units in groups of 10 - 15 pcs.

For continuous technological processes, the requirements for the volume and reliability of the alarm and protection systems are determined by the automation project.

The introduction of a continuous technological process for the production of high-density polyethylene with a capacity of 80 - 100 thousand tons / year compared to 30 - 40 thousand tons / year allows to reduce specific capital costs by 25%, the cost of the product by 35% and increase labor productivity by 15 times .

However, a continuous technological process is more likely to change the mode. The installation mode can be changed non-drastically, but for the convenience of planning, a certain small number (usually from two to six and, in any case, not more than ten) are allocated, which are taken into account.

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3. Continuous production process. The continuous production process involves the mechanization of the workflow as a whole and is the most complex form production technology. The continuous process of production has neither beginning nor end, the human operator is not part of the production as such, since all the work is done by machines. Operators control the process, control its parameters, repair equipment. Continuous production technology is used, for example, in chemical and oil refineries, nuclear power plants.

Differences in production technologies are determined by their technical complexity, or the degree of involvement in manufacturing process machinery and equipment in order to exclude people from it. Employees involved in complex technologies are primarily concerned with monitoring the operation of equipment.

Mass production technologies are characterized by high degrees of formalization and centralization, while continuous production processes are low. Unlike small-scale and continuous production, standardized mass production requires centralized decision-making and well-defined rules and procedures. As the complexity of technology increases, the importance of administrative management increases and the role of support personnel increases. The less homogeneous the production process, the more careful the control must be. High difficulty technical equipment causes an increase in the value of auxiliary labor, therefore, mass production is characterized by a high ratio of auxiliary and direct labor. Mass production is characterized by the highest rate of control of first-line managers. In small-scale and continuous production, there are fewer subordinates per front-line manager, since they require closer supervision. In general, firms with small-scale and continuous production have an organic structure, while companies with mass production have a mechanistic structure. The interrelationships of structures and technologies have a direct impact on the performance of the organization.

FLEXIBLE PRODUCTION. The most modern technology production, the so-called flexible production, is based on the use of workflow components (robots, machines, product development and engineering analysis) for automation and integration computer technology. Reading the bar codes of components allows the equipment to instantly switch to new settings as various parts pass along the automated assembly line. Flexible production is characterized by the highest degree of complexity. In agile technology structures, there is a trend towards new rules, decentralization and a decrease in the share of administrators in the total workforce, personal horizontal communications and a team-oriented organic approach.

SERVICE TECHNOLOGIES. The importance of service organizations is constantly increasing. Service technologies have the following specifics:

1. The intangibility of the release. The performance of a service company is intangible. Services are not material and, unlike material goods, they are not stored; they are either consumed at the time of provision or irretrievably lost.

2. Direct contact with consumers. The provision and receipt of services involves direct interaction between the employee of the company and the client. Provision and consumption of services occur simultaneously. In a manufacturing company technical workers separated from customers and do not enter into direct contact.

Service industry organizations include consulting firms, law firms, brokerage houses, airlines, hotels, advertising agencies, public relations firms, amusement parks and educational organizations. Services are also provided by divisions large corporations and manufacturing firms. The structure and goals of each of the departments of the company must be consistent with technology engineering production, but service delivery technologies. Thus, service technologies are used not only in service organizations, but also in the departments of manufacturing companies serving the main production.

One of distinguishing features service technologies that directly affect the structure of the organization - the need for close interactions between the employee and the consumer. Service firms tend to have an organic structure, decentralized decision-making, and largely informal working relationships. They are characterized by a high degree horizontal communications because customer service and problem solving require the sharing of information and resources. Service points are dispersed, therefore, each business unit is relatively small and located in close proximity to the main consumers. For example, large banks, hotels, cafes fast food and medical centers have branches in different regions.

As a rule, service firms strive for organicity and decentralization, but some of them have rigid rules and procedures for customer service. The standardization of services makes it possible to achieve a high efficiency of a mechanistic centralized structure.

V. INTERDEPENDENCE OF DEPARTMENTS.

The structure of the organization is largely determined by the interdependence of its departments, which refers to the degree of their subordination to each other in the sense of the resources or materials necessary to complete the tasks. Weak interdependence means that departments perform work tasks autonomously and do not have a strong need to coordinate or share materials. With strong interdependence, departments must constantly exchange information and resources. Figure 6 shows various forms interdependencies.

CARTEL INTERDEPENDENCE. Cartel interdependence implies that, being part of an organization and contributing to the production of a joint product, each of the departments (divisions) has relative independence, since they perform non-overlapping tasks. Example - activity regional offices banks drawing financial resources from a common source, but not interacting with each other.

SEQUENTIAL INTERDEPENDENCE. With sequential interdependence, the result of the work of one department (division) becomes the starting point for another. An example of sequential dependency is assembly line technology in the automotive industry. This interdependence is closer than that of a cartel, as departments exchange data with each other and are essentially dependent on each other.

Addiction Form

Elements of adequate coordination

1. Cartel (bank)