Class social stratification. Social stratification and the class system of modern societies Class system of social stratification

Distinguish open And closed stratification systems. A social structure whose members can change their status relatively easily is called an open system of stratification. A structure whose members can change their status with great difficulty is called a closed stratification system.

In open systems of stratification, each member of society can change his status, rise or fall on the social ladder based on his own efforts and abilities. Modern societies, experiencing the need for qualified and competent specialists capable of managing complex social, political and economic processes, provide fairly free movement of individuals in the stratification system.

Open class stratification does not know formal restrictions on moving from one stratum to another, a ban on mixed marriages, a ban on engaging in a particular profession, etc. With the development of modern society, the social mobility, i.e. the transition from one strata to another is activated.

Closed stratification presupposes very strict boundaries of strata, prohibitions on moving from one stratum to another. The caste system is not typical for modern society.

An example of a closed system of stratification is the caste organization of India (it functioned until 1900). Traditionally, Hindu society was divided into castes, and people inherited social status at birth from their parents and could not change it during life. There were thousands of castes in India, but they were all grouped into four main ones: the Brahmans, or priestly caste, numbering about 3% of the population; Kshatriyas (descendants of warriors) and Vaishyas (merchants), who together made up about 7% of Indians; Shudras, peasants and artisans made up about 70% of the population, the remaining 20% ​​were Harijans, or untouchables, who were traditionally scavengers, scavengers, tanners and swineherders.

Members of the upper castes despised, humiliated and oppressed members of the lower castes. Strict rules did not allow representatives of higher and lower castes to communicate, because it was believed that this would spiritually defile members of the higher caste.

Historical types of social stratification:

Slavery

An essential feature of slavery is the ownership of some people by others. Both the ancient Romans and the ancient Africans had slaves. IN Ancient Greece slaves were engaged in manual labor, thanks to which free citizens had the opportunity to express themselves in politics and the arts. Slavery was least common among nomadic peoples, especially hunter-gatherers.

Three reasons for slavery are usually cited:

1. debt obligation, when a person, unable to pay his debts, fell into slavery to his creditor.

2. violation of laws, when the execution of a murderer or robber was replaced by slavery, i.e. the culprit was handed over to the affected family as compensation for the grief or damage caused.

3. war, raids, conquest, when one group of people conquered another and the winners used some of the captives as slaves.

General characteristics of slavery. Although slaveholding practices varied from region to region and different eras, but whether slavery was the result of unpaid debt, punishment, military captivity, or racial prejudice; whether it was lifelong or temporary; hereditary or not, a slave was still the property of another person, and a system of laws secured the status of a slave. Slavery served as a basic distinction between people, clearly indicating which person was free (and legally entitled to certain privileges) and which person was a slave (without privileges).

Castes.

In the caste system, status is determined by birth and is lifelong; to use sociological terms: the basis of the caste system is ascribed status. The achieved status is not able to change the individual’s place in this system. People who are born into a low status group will always have that status, no matter what they personally achieve in life.

Societies characterized by this form of stratification strive to clearly maintain boundaries between castes, so endogamy is practiced here - marriages within one's own group - and there is a ban on intergroup marriages. To prevent contact between castes, such societies develop complex rules regarding ritual purity, according to which interaction with members of lower castes is considered to pollute the higher caste.

Indian society is the most striking example of the caste system. Based not on racial, but on religious principles, this system lasted for almost three millennia. The four main Indian castes, or Varnas, are divided into thousands of specialized sub-castes (jatis), with representatives of each caste and each jati engaged in a particular craft.

Clans.

The clan system is typical of agrarian societies. In such a system, each individual is connected with a vast social network relatives - clan. A clan is something like a very extended family and has similar characteristics: if the clan has a high status, the individual belonging to this clan has the same status; all funds belonging to the clan, meager or rich, belong equally to each member of the clan; Loyalty to the clan is the lifelong responsibility of each member.

Clans also resemble castes: membership in a clan is determined by birth and is lifelong. However, unlike castes, marriages between different clans are quite permitted; they can even be used to create and strengthen alliances between clans, since the obligations imposed by marriage on the in-laws can unite members of two clans.

Processes of industrialization and urbanization transform clans into more fluid groups, eventually replacing clans with social classes.

Classes.

Stratification systems based on slavery, castes and clans are closed. The boundaries separating people are so clear and rigid that they leave no room for people to move from one group to another, with the exception of marriages between members of different clans. The class system is much more open because it is based primarily on money or material possessions. Class membership is also determined at birth - the individual receives the status of his parents, however social class An individual's vision during his life may change depending on what he managed (or failed) to achieve in life. In addition, there are no laws defining an individual's occupation or profession based on birth or prohibiting marriage with members of other social classes.

Consequently, the main characteristic of this system of social stratification is the relative flexibility of its boundaries. The class system leaves opportunities for social mobility, i.e. to move up or down the social ladder. Having the potential to improve your social status, or class, is one of the main driving forces that motivates people to study well and work hard. Certainly, marital status, inherited by a person from birth, can determine extremely unfavorable conditions that will not leave him a chance to rise too high in life, and provide the child with such privileges that it will be almost impossible for him to “slide down” the class ladder.

Gender inequality and social stratification.

In any society, gender is the basis of social stratification. In no society is gender the only principle on which social stratification, but nevertheless it is inherent in any system of social stratification - be it slavery, castes, clans or classes. Gender divides members of any society into categories and receives unequal access to the benefits that their society has to offer. It seems obvious that this division is always in favor of men.

20) Social stratification: criteria for belonging to a stratum and basic stratification models

Social stratification is a central theme in sociology.

Stratification is a layering of groups that have different access to social benefits due to their position in the social hierarchy.

It describes social inequality in society, division social strata by income level and lifestyle, by the presence or absence of privileges. In primitive society, inequality was insignificant, so stratification was almost absent there. IN complex societies inequality is very strong, it divided people according to income, level of education, and power.

Strata – translated “layer, layer”. The term "stratification" was borrowed from geology, where it refers to the vertical arrangement of the Earth's layers. Sociology has likened the structure of society to the structure of the Earth and placed social layers (strata) also vertically. But the first ideas about social stratification are found in Plato (he distinguishes three classes: philosophers, guards, farmers and artisans) and Aristotle (also three classes: “very wealthy”, “extremely poor”, “middle layer”) Dobrenkov V.I., Kravchenko A.I. Sociology - M.: Infra-M, 2001 - p.265. The ideas of the theory of social stratification finally took shape at the end of the 18th century thanks to the advent of the method of sociological analysis.

Social stratum - layer, people with a common status sign of their position, who feel connected. This horizontal division is identified by cultural and psychological assessments, realized in behavior and consciousness.

Signs of the layer - economic situation, type and nature of work, volume of power, prestige, authority, influence, place of residence, consumption of vital and cultural goods, family ties, social circle. They study: the mutual influence of elements, self-identification and the perception of the group by others.

Social class is a large social stratum distinguished from others by income, education, power and prestige; a large group of people having the same socio-economic status in a system of social stratification.

According to Marxism, slaveholding, feudal and capitalist society divided into several classes, including two antagonistic classes (exploiters and exploited): at first there were slave owners and slaves; after - feudal lords and peasants; finally, in modern society, these are the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The third class is, as a rule, artisans, small traders, free peasants, that is, those who have own funds production, works exclusively for himself, but does not use any other labor force except his own. Each social class is a system of behavior, a set of values ​​and norms, a lifestyle. Despite the influence of the dominant culture, each social class cultivates its own values, behaviors and ideals.

1. According to Marx – ownership of private property.

2. According to Weber:

Attitude to property and income level,

Attitude to status groups

Possession of political power or proximity to political circles.

3. According to Sorokin, the main stratifications are: -economic, -political, -professional

Today social stratification is hierarchical, complex and multifaceted.

Social structure(from lat. structure- structure, location, order) of society - the structure of society as a whole, a set of interconnected and interacting social groups, as well as the relationships between them.

At the core social structure lies social division labor, the presence of specific needs and interests, values, norms and roles, lifestyles and other characteristics of various social groups.

The role of social structure:

1) organizes society into a single whole;

2) contributes to maintaining the integrity and stability of society.

Social relations - these are certain stable connections between people as representatives of social groups.

Two characters social relations

Cooperation	Rivalry
1) Expressed in mutual interest, the benefit of the relationship for both parties. 2) Aimed at achieving an emerging joint goal, which also helps to strengthen mutual understanding, partnership, and friendship. 3) Associated with qualities such as loyalty, gratitude, respect, support, etc.	1) Expressed in the desire to get ahead of, remove, subjugate or destroy an opponent. 2) Associated with the lack of common, joint goals; each side considers the opponent, his social positions, and actions as an obstacle to achieving the goal.

Competition in social relationships often leads to social conflicts.

Depending on the composition of the participants, social relations are divided into the following types:

1) Social group - relations between classes, social strata, etc.

2) Socio-demographic - relations between men, women, children, youth, pensioners, etc.

3) Socio-ethnic - relations between nations, nationalities, national and ethnographic groups, etc.

4) Social and professional - relations between labor collectives and professional associations.

5) Interpersonal - a person's relationship with the people around him.

Social stratification (from lat. stratum- layer, flooring and facere- do) - is a system that includes many social entities, whose representatives differ among themselves in the unequal amount of power and material wealth, rights and responsibilities, privileges and prestige.

Strata - this is a real, empirically fixed community, a social stratum, a group of people united by some common social sign(property, professional, level of education, power, prestige, etc.).

Social differentiation (from Lat. differentia- difference) - is the division of society into various social groups that occupy positions in it different position.

According to the theory of stratification, modern society is layered, multi-level, outwardly reminiscent of geological layers.

Stratification has two essential characteristics:

1) the upper layers are in a more privileged position (in relation to the possession of resources or opportunities to receive rewards) in relation to the lower layers;

2) the upper layers are significantly smaller than the lower ones in terms of the number of members of society included in them.

Different social groups occupy different positions in society, which are determined by unequal rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties, property and income, relationships with authority and influence among members of their community.

Historical types of stratification systems

Name systems	Her essence
Slavery	Slavery - This is the only form of social relations in history when one person acts as the property of another, deprived of all rights and freedoms. A form of the most rigid fixation of people in the lower strata.
Caste system	Caste - a social group in which a person owes his membership solely to his birth. There is detailed regulation in the activities of each caste.
Class system	Estate - social group with rights and responsibilities fixed by custom or legal law and transmitted by inheritance. The rights and duties of each class are determined by law and sanctified by religion.
Class system	Class - a large social group, differing in its role in all spheres of society, which is formed and functions on the basis of fundamental social interests. Belonging to classes is not regulated by the authorities, is not established by law and is not inherited.

Historical types of stratification

Name of social group	Her essence		Emergence
Caste (from lat. castus- clean)	A social group that has a religious rule assigned for life from birth and inheritable rights and responsibilities.	Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (farmers), Shudras (servants).	Ancient India
Estate	A social group that has rights and obligations that are fixed by custom or law and are inheritable.	The upper classes (nobility, clergy), the unprivileged third class (artisans, merchants, peasants). In Russia from the second half of the 18th century: nobility, clergy, merchants, peasantry, philistines (middle urban strata).	Medieval
	A social group that differs in its role in all spheres of society, which is formed and functions on the basis of fundamental social interests.	Slaves and slave owners; feudal lords and dependent peasants; bourgeoisie and wage workers.	Class society

The most common approaches to analyzing the social structure of society are stratification And class, which are based on the concepts of “stratum” and “class”.

The main difference between the stratification and class approaches: within the latter, the primary importance is economic forces, all other criteria are their derivatives. The stratification approach is based on taking into account not only economic, but also political, social, as well as socio-psychological factors. This implies that there is not always a rigid connection between them: a high position in one position can be combined with a low position in another.

Social stratification:

1) is a method of identifying the social strata of a given society;

2) forms an idea of ​​the social portrait of this society.

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Pitirim Aleksandrovich Sorokin (1889−1968) - Russian-American sociologist and cultural scientist, one of the founders of the theories of social stratification and social mobility.

Member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party (Socialist Revolutionaries) (1906), engaged in the propaganda of revolutionary ideas. Editor of the newspaper “Narodnaya Mysl” (1915), privat-docent (1916). Condemned the October Revolution, in 1918 renounced political activity and membership in the Socialist Revolutionary Party, was engaged in scientific and teaching activities. Exiled abroad (1922, “The Philosophical Ship”). Accepted American citizenship (1930), founded and headed the sociology department at Harvard University (1931), president of the American Sociological Association (1965).

He supported the ideas of the psychological school of law. For example, he qualified a criminal act on the basis of the experiences of the individual who committed it, i.e., his awareness of his own act as criminal. He was engaged in the study of patterns of behavior accepted in society, sanctions applied to those who violate norms and regulations.

Defined law as generally binding rules of conduct, introduced and controlled by the state, in which the freedom of one person is consistent with the freedom of other persons in order to distinguish and protect human interests. He considered law as the constitutive principle of any social group.

He noted the underdevelopment and lack of structure of sociological knowledge, believed that sociology should become a metatheory that generalizes all humanitarian knowledge in unified system. Viewed society as a sociocultural system.

The basis of his sociological analysis is the theory of social stratification. He studied social groups and classified them. He identified two types of social mobility (horizontal and vertical).

We still know so little about the "mysterious" world of social events that any real approximation of knowledge is of great value. Theories of progress, with their assessments of good and bad, progressive and regressive, can only express the subjective tastes of their authors, and nothing more. If sociology wants to be an exact science, it must free itself from such value judgments.

Any long and brutal war, like any revolution, degrades people in moral and legal terms.

Characteristics of social stratification

Social stratification acts as central theme, which is considered within the framework of sociological science. In essence, social stratification is aimed at describing the social inequality present in society, the division of society into layers, which occurs according to the following criteria:

1. Income level;
2. Lifestyle;
3. The presence or absence of certain privileges.

Within primitive society, inequality was insignificant, so stratification was practically absent at that time. People have not yet realized the possibility of cooperation to achieve any benefits or satisfy more serious needs than the need for food and procreation. Hence the absence of a visible division of primitive society into classes, the absence of stratification as such. But as society became more complex, social inequality also increased: it was this that divided people according to some of the criteria that we have already indicated above: income level, lifestyle and the presence of privileges and powers of power.

Gradually, castes and then classes are formed. A little later, society begins to be divided into classes. Transitions from one social stratum to another occur to varying degrees in different communities. In some places this is quite easy to do, but in others a person’s status is inherited from an older generation, and he is not able to change it, since society does not provide for this privilege. In general, freedom of social movement, of any type of mobility, is determined by what kind of society itself is - open or closed.

Social stratification implies the absence of homogeneous social system, as well as equality of people with each other. Some people have more income and resources, while some citizens lack material resources to satisfy their interests and needs. For this reason, a division of society occurs, and its elements can both cooperate with each other and enter into visible confrontation with each other, which affects the quality of life of the entire society as a whole. For this reason, special social norms and guidelines are created that make it possible to control society and the relationships between individuals who represent different social categories of citizens.

These norms were also not formed immediately. In the very first stratification system, the most primitive one, which arose in the primitive period, there were no regulatory components at all, which generally did not bother people. They did not fight for power or the imposition of their rules and interests: in primitive society the goal was to survive, as well as preserve their family, their health without negative consequences.

Features of the social stratification system

Note 1

The basis of social stratification is a special social differentiation. It implies the division of people into social groups according to certain characteristics.

These groups can be correlated with each other both on a horizontal and vertical scale. Much depends on what the society is like, where this division is organized, and what characteristics it has (the level of closedness and openness is especially taken into account). The most common is the social stratification of society, which is based on some important features:

1. Income, which refers to the amount of money that an individual or his family members receive in general over a certain period of time;
2. Wealth is the totality of all movable and immovable property, which also includes the presence of accumulated income in the form of monetary savings that are used by a person in a necessary life situation;
3. Power as a third factor reflects the capabilities and abilities of an individual to manage other people and make special decisions for them;
4. Prestige is the degree of respect in society for a particular profession, which may also imply a high level of income, wealth and the presence in the hands of an individual of power, which he must dispose of in accordance with current legislation.

In history there are several systems of social stratification that developed in different historical periods and reflected the characteristics of the social structure of that time. Much depends on what type of social system it is - open or closed. Thus, in open systems, it was always quite simple for individuals to change their own social status, since they did not have strict restrictions and could make independent decisions regarding certain situations. Any member of the social system could either move up or down the social ladder, mostly this was purely his personal decision, and such movements also depended mainly only on him.

Speaking about closed systems of social stratification, it is worth emphasizing that they presuppose the unconditionality of the prescribed status of a person. This status could be passed on from generation to generation (for example, the status of a slave), and it was difficult or almost impossible for a person to change his own social position. Such systems are predominantly characteristic of traditional societies, especially in the past (caste system). In addition, in closed systems of stratification there was a greater variety of social strata and systems that reflected the specific structure of society at that time. For example, this includes the slave system, caste and class systems, and the class system. The last two, however, assumed a freer movement of individuals, as well as the implementation of their social stratification.

Note 2

Thus, the system of social stratification implies the presence of groups of individuals that differ from each other in income levels, the presence or absence of power and wealth, as well as prestige, which determines the significance of the individual’s professional status in the social system.

The basis of social stratification is social differentiation - the division of people into groups that are correlated with each other on both a horizontal and vertical scale. The most common is the social stratification of society based on the following criteria:

• income- the amount of money that a family or a certain individual received over a certain period of time;
• wealth- movable and real estate, as well as the presence of accumulated income in the form of cash savings;
• power- the ability and ability to manage other people;
• prestige- the degree of respect in society for a particular profession.

The stories are known various systems social stratification.

IN open systems individuals simply need to change their social status. The openness of the system means the opportunity for any member of society to climb (descend) the social ladder in accordance with their abilities and efforts. In such systems, the achieved status means no less than that assigned to a person from birth. In modern society, any individual, regardless of gender and origin, can, at the cost of greater or lesser effort, significantly increase his initial status, for example, starting from zero, become the president of the country.

Closed systems stratification, on the contrary, presupposes the unconditional primacy of the assigned status. Here it is almost impossible for an individual to change the status acquired by virtue of origin. Such systems are characteristic of traditional societies, especially in the past. For example, the caste system that operated in India until 1950 prescribed strict boundaries between four castes, to which individuals belonged based on origin. At the same time, members of each caste were prescribed a strictly defined occupation, their own rituals, food system, rules for treating each other and women, and way of life. Respect for representatives of higher castes and contempt for lower ones was enshrined in religious institutions and traditions. There were cases of transition from caste to caste, but as isolated exceptions to the rules.

There are four main systems of social stratification:

• slavery;
• castes;
• estates;

Slavery characterized by the possession of some people by others. Slavery was most common in agrarian societies, while slavery was least common among nomadic peoples, especially hunters and gatherers.

Conditions of slavery and slavery varied significantly in different regions of the world. In Ancient Greece, slaves were engaged in manual labor, thanks to which free citizens had the opportunity to express themselves in politics and the arts. In some countries, slavery was a temporary condition of a person: after working the allotted time for his master, the slave became free and had the right to return to his homeland. The Israelites freed their slaves in the year of jubilee—every 50 years. In ancient Rome, slaves generally had the opportunity to purchase their freedom; in order to collect the amount necessary for the ransom, they made a deal with the owner and sold their services to other people (this is exactly what some educated Greeks did when they were enslaved by the Romans). History knows cases when a slave who became rich began to lend money to his master, and in the end the master fell into slavery to his former slave. In many cases slavery was for life; in particular, criminals sentenced to hard labor were turned into slaves and worked on Roman galleys as rowers until their death.

Slave status was not always inherited. In Ancient Mexico, the children of slaves were always free people. But in most countries, the children of slaves automatically became slaves too. In some cases, the child of a slave, who had served his entire life in a rich family, was adopted by that family, he received the surname of his masters and could become one of the heirs along with the other children of the masters.

Castes. In the caste system, status is determined by birth and is lifelong; in other words, the basis of the caste system is prescribed status. The achieved status is not able to change the individual’s place in this system. Those who by birth belong to a low status group will always have that status regardless of what they personally have achieved in life.

Societies characterized by this form of stratification strive to clearly maintain boundaries between castes, so endogamy (marriages within one’s own group) is practiced and intergroup marriages are prohibited, and complex rules have been developed according to which communication with representatives of lower castes defiles the higher caste.

Class system became most widespread in feudal Europe and some traditional societies of Asia, for example in Japan. Its main characteristic is the presence of several (usually three) stable social layers to which individuals belong by origin and the transition between which is very difficult, although in exceptional cases it is possible. The basis of the class system is legal organization society, which provided for the inheritance of titles and statuses, so marriages usually took place within the same class. The fundamental difference between the classes was not so much in economic well-being as in access to political and social power and socially significant knowledge. Each class had a monopoly on certain types of occupations and professions. The class system is a closed system, although individual changes in status were occasionally allowed: as a result of inter-class marriages, at the will of a monarch or feudal lord - as a reward for special merits, when being tonsured as a monk or receiving the rank of a clergyman.

Class system much more open than systems of stratification based on slavery, caste and class, where the boundaries separating people are so clear and rigid that they leave no room for people to move from one group to another, except by marriage between members of different clans. The class system is based primarily on money or material possessions. Although class membership is also determined at birth - an individual receives the status of his parents, an individual's social class during his life can change depending on what he managed (or failed) to achieve in life. In addition, there are no laws defining an individual's occupation or profession based on birth or prohibiting marriage with members of other social classes. Consequently, this system of social stratification is characterized by the relative flexibility of its boundaries. The class system leaves room for social mobility, i.e. to move up (down) the social ladder. Having the potential to rise in social status, or class, is one of the main driving forces that motivates people to study well and work hard. Of course, the family status inherited by a person from birth can determine extremely disadvantageous conditions that will leave him no chance of rising too high in life, or provide him with such privileges that it will be almost impossible for him to “slide down” the class ladder.

Ideas about social mobility

The concept of social mobility was first introduced by P. Sorokin, who defined it as “any transition of an individual, social object or value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another.” Sorokin considered mobility as one of the necessary social functions. Downward mobility is caused by the pushing out of less fortunate and less capable individuals in the competitive struggle, and at the level of group mobility by a decrease in the social prestige of specific professions due to objective factors, loss of popularity by political parties, etc.

Social mobility called the movement of individuals in a system of social stratification from one layer to another. There are at least two reasons for the existence of social mobility in society. First, societies change, and social changes modify the division of labor, creating new statuses and undermining old ones. Secondly, although the elite can monopolize educational opportunities, they are unable to control the natural distribution of talent and ability, so the upper strata are inevitably replenished with talented people from the lower strata.

Social mobility comes in many forms. It could be:

• vertical is a change in the position of an individual that causes an increase or decrease in his social status. For example, if an auto mechanic becomes the director of a car service center, this is a manifestation of upward mobility, and if an auto mechanic becomes a cleaner, such a move will be an indicator of downward mobility;
• horizontal - a change in the position of an individual that does not lead to an increase or decrease in social status. For example, if a car mechanic gets a job as a mechanic, such a move would mean horizontal mobility;
• intergenerational (intergenerational), determined by comparing the social status of parents and their children at a certain point in the careers of both (for example, by the rank of their profession at approximately the same age). Research shows that a significant portion, perhaps even a majority, of the Russian population moves at least slightly up or down the class hierarchy in each generation;
• intragenerational (intragenerational), which involves comparing the social status of an individual over a long period of time. According to research results, many Russians changed their occupation during their lives. However, mobility for most is limited. Moving over a short social distance is the rule, while moving over a long social distance is the exception.

For open stratification systems, vertical mobility is a fairly common phenomenon, if we are not talking about dizzying jumps from the bottom to the elite, but about moving step by step. For example, the grandfather is a peasant, the father is a rural teacher, the son moves to the city and defends his dissertation.

In closed systems, social mobility is virtually impossible. For example, in caste and class societies The social norm was, on the one hand, tens of generations of shoemakers, tanners, merchants, and serfs, and on the other, long genealogical chains of noble families. The monotony of such social reality is indicated by those cited in historical sources street names, for example Khlebny Lane, Kuznetsky Most Street in Moscow. Craftsmen passed on their status and profession from generation to generation and even lived nearby.

Types of stratification systems

Social inequality can be represented in the form of a scale, where at one pole are the rich, people who own the maximum amount of scarce resources, at the other are the poor, respectively, with minimal access to public goods. There is a distinction between absolute and relative poverty. Under absolute poverty is understood as a condition in which an individual, with the income he receives, is unable to satisfy even basic needs (food, clothing, housing) or satisfy them to the extent that ensures only biological survival. The inability to maintain the “decent” living standards accepted in society is considered as relative poverty.

Poverty is not only the economic and social condition of people, but also a special way of life, a lifestyle passed on from generation to generation and limiting opportunities for normal civilized development. In Russia for characterization scale of poverty, which is determined by the proportion of the country’s population located in the officially recorded features, or poverty threshold. usually used indicator living wage. Considering that currently about 30% of the Russian population lives at or below the poverty line. An important task of the state is to reduce poverty.

To measure inequality, P. Sorokin introduced two parameters:

• stratification height - the magnitude of the social distance between the highest and lowest status in a given society;
• stratification profile - the ratio of the number of social positions occupied in the hierarchy of values ​​of a status layer (stratum).

It should be noted that there is the following pattern: the higher the level of development of society, the lower the height of stratification, and vice versa. So. V developed societies stratification profile approaching diamond-shaped form due to the large middle class, and in the backward ones - to a pyramidal, or “conical” form. The Russian stratification profile rather resembles a triangle with a vertically protruding acute angle.

An important empirical indicator of social inequality is decile coefficient, which refers to the ratio of incomes of the richest 10% to the lowest 10% of income groups. So, in highly developed industrial countries it is 4-7, where even an approach of this coefficient to 8 is considered as an indicator of impending social upheaval.

In general, despite the differences in the views of different sociological schools and directions, it can be noted that social inequality performs a positive function in society, since it serves as a stimulus for the progress of social development.

Under social stratification system It is customary to understand the totality of ways that maintain the unevenness of this distribution in a particular society. In sociology there are four main historical type stratification systems: slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies in which social movement from one stratum to another is either completely prohibited or significantly limited. The fourth type belongs to open a society where transitions from lower to higher strata are quite real.

1. Slavery is a form of economic, social and legal enslavement of people. This is the only form of social relations in history in which one person is the property of another and is deprived of all rights and freedoms.

2. Caste system - a stratification system that involves lifelong assignment of a person to a certain stratum on ethnic, religious or economic grounds. A person owes his membership in this system solely to birth. A classic example of a caste system is India, where there were detailed regulations for each caste. So. According to the canons of this system, membership in a particular caste was inherited, and therefore the possibility of moving from one caste to another was prohibited.

3. The class system is a stratification system that presupposes the legal assignment of a person to a certain stratum. At the same time, the rights and duties of each stratum were determined by law and sanctified by religion. Membership in the estate was mainly inherited, but as an exception it could be purchased for money or given as a gift.

The class organization of European feudal society was divided into two upper classes(nobility and clergy) and unprivileged third estate(merchants, artisans, peasants). The barriers between classes were quite strict, so social mobility was carried out not so much between, but within classes, which included many ranks, ranks, strata, and professions.

4. The class system is an open-type stratification system, where, unlike previous closed-type systems, membership in classes is determined primarily by place in the system social production, ownership of property, as well as the presence of abilities, education, and level of income received.

The considered stratification system is generally accepted, but not the only classification. In reality, all stratification systems are closely intertwined and complement each other.

The main systems (types) of social stratification are:

1. slavery. Under this stratification system, two main groups of the population are distinguished, differing in their status, rights and responsibilities: free and slaves;

2. castes. Under the caste system of stratification, status is determined from birth and is lifelong;

3. clans. This type is typical for agricultural societies. Clans resemble highly extended families;

4. classes.

The first three types of social stratification are classified as closed, the fourth - open. A closed system is a social structure whose members have great difficulty changing their status. Open system is a social structure whose members can change their status relatively easily. Changes in status are associated with the concept of “social mobility” (see below).

The degree of social stratification of a society changes over time in the same country. According to the theory of G. Lenski (1970), the maximum level of stratification of society was observed in the era of slavery and feudalism. According to the theory of K. Marx, inequality in society is constantly increasing (“escalation of inequality”). P.A. Sorokin argues that the level of inequality in society fluctuates (fluctuates).

Methods for studying social stratification come down to choosing criteria for identifying population groups in society and actually conducting research to identify these groups. The main problem is the choice of criteria according to which population groups are distinguished. This depends on the researcher’s theoretical views on the problem of social stratification, as well as the name of the identified groups (stratum, classes, strata). The historical era has a great influence through the level of development of society itself and the relations that have developed in it (classes, new population groups corresponding to new industries) and the level of development of sociology as a science.

As a rule, each researcher gives his own names to the identified groups and determines their number. It is not possible to present all points of view within the framework of this work. 12

One of the main criteria for identifying strata in society is the level of income, profession, social status, level of education, and position in the “management-execution” system.

T.I. Zaslavskaya proposed several models of stratification: 1) depending on the status and place in the process of reforming society; 13 2) by place in the country’s economy. 14

Currently, due to the use computer technology, allowing for short terms process huge amounts of information, it is possible to use multifactor analysis.

For example, using the cluster analysis procedure, N.I. Lapin in 2002 conducted a study of the stratification of Russian society according to three criteria: power functions, standard of living and education. 15 Five clusters were identified: “high status”, “experts”, “realists”, “new poor”, “old poor”.

All over the world, two stratification indicators are used:

1. height of stratification - the social distance between the highest and lowest statuses of a given particular society;

2. stratification profile - shows the ratio of the number of places (social positions) in the social structure of society as status increases.

The main groups (strata) of Russian society and their characteristics.

Belyaeva L.A. 16 in his work points out two features of the stratification of society in modern Russia:

1. dynamic character;

2. “youth” and incompleteness of the structure, ongoing transformation processes.

Zaslavskaya T.I. 17 identified the following strata in modern Russian society:

1. upper class(elites and sub-elites):

A) ruling elite. This layer of Russian society includes heads of government agencies and political parties, the top level of the state bureaucracy, as well as owners of large capital (oligarchs). Over the years of reforms, its personal and social composition has been significantly updated. But this happened mainly due to the economic wing of the elite, while the composition of its political wing did not so much change as regroup. As numerous studies show, most of the party-Komsomol nomenklatura managed to maintain a high status, converting their political and social capital into economic capital. At present, the Russian elite is just as closed and opposed to society as the former communist nomenclature was;

b) upper (sub-elite) layer. This stratum is represented primarily by owners of medium-sized and relatively large firms, directors of large and medium-sized privatized enterprises, as well as the wealthiest part of other groups of the employed population (mainly managers and business professionals). It is three-quarters male, almost 90% of whom are young or middle-aged; 2/3 have higher education, and most of the rest are secondary special. This is the most urbanized layer.

2. middle protolayer. About 2/5 of this proto-stratum are small entrepreneurs and managers, somewhat more are qualified specialists (professionals) and about 1/5 are service people (middle management of the bureaucracy and officers). The factor uniting these groups is the median position on the social stratification scale. However, they bear little resemblance to the middle classes of modern Western societies. It is rather the embryo of a full-fledged middle layer, a kind of protolayer. The groups we classify as the middle layer are not similar to each other either in position or sociocultural appearance; their totality is socially heterogeneous. At least two groups can be distinguished: the first is the “new layer”, formed during the period of economic reforms, which has adopted Western-type orientations and stands out in terms of its level of well-being; the second is the old “pre-market” middle class, belonging to which is determined by a certain “ top quality» personality (high morality, priority of spiritual values). The existing gap in income between these two groups is compensated by such important characteristics of the old class as education, culture, information, and the range of social connections.

A) top layer represented mainly by managers and entrepreneurs, specialists, military personnel, and humanitarian intelligentsia. More than 50% are employed in the private sector;

b) middle layer consists of specialists and skilled workers, enterprise managers. Almost 50% are employed in the private sector, many young people (under 25 years old);

V) bottom layer- “white” and “blue” collar workers, employed in the public sector.

High professional and qualification potential, a favorable employment structure, a relatively tolerant financial situation, relative numbers and a tendency to further expansion allow us to consider the middle proto-stratum as a potential driving force of the transformation process. It is the formation of a full-fledged middle layer that simultaneously serves as an indicator of the stability and progressive development of society, since it concentrates qualified personnel with high professionalism and civic activity.

3. base layer. This most massive element of the social structure is represented by average ordinary Russians. The overwhelming majority of them are mid- and low-skilled workers engaged in hired labor. Three quarters of them work in the public sector and only 9% in the private sector. These are the proletarianized intelligentsia, semi-intelligentsia (technical employees), workers, peasants, lower-level trade and service workers; 55% of the base layer are women, often middle-aged and older, with education at school or technical college. Most of its representatives live in medium-sized and small provincial towns, villages and hamlets.

4. bottom layer. The lower layer of society in our calculations is represented by workers who have no profession and perform simple labor. This is the least educated, poorest, least initiative and socially helpless layer. The proportion of elderly people here is 1.6 times higher than average, and there are 1.5 times more women than men.

5. underclass.

The main characteristics of the layers of Russian society are presented in Appendix No. 1,2.