Folk ceramics. Cognitive modeling of etymological nests in languages of different systems (on the basis of French and Kabardino-Circassian languages)
This term denotes a specialized craft that consists in working clay with special technician in order to obtain a variety of ceramic products used in the economy. As for the processing of clay, the name “pottery” is used everywhere, but it is useful to know that clay tiles and baked bricks for building houses were also produced on the territory of Moldova. But here we will limit ourselves to brief description the most developed area of folk craft - pottery. The vessels created by potters occupied the most important place in the life of all human communities. Recall that it is the baked clay vessels that are still considered archaeological documents, on the basis of which a judgment is made about the culture of ancient civilizations. The history of pottery goes back thousands of years. There are different opinions about the origin of this important craft, which has provided society with ceramics since ancient times. This occupation in Moldova was originally practiced by men, and women helped them by performing a number of ancillary work.
You can learn about the early stage of the development of pottery through the results of archaeological excavations that took place in many settlements of the republic. In the Middle Ages, they begin to make vessels for cooking from "lean clay", and for storing liquids - from "fat clay".
Clay processing technique
Clay is used as a raw material for creating vessels, which can be found in any settlement, only at different depths. Clay processing includes several important steps:
a) extraction of clay and its purification from impurities;
b) preparation of clay mixed with water by repeated kneading and fermentation to obtain a certain degree of plasticity;
c) grinding clay by cutting into thin slices with a large semicircular knife. Often, degreasing agents are added to the clay, after which it is again left to ferment;
d) after the preparation of the clay, the stage of shaping the vessels follows. The master again cuts thin slices of clay and kneads it with his hands in order to obtain a homogeneous lump of the required size to create a certain vessel. The molding is done by hand on the so-called potter's wheel, which is a wooden device consisting of two round discs connected by a thick vertical roller 10 cm thick and about 50-60 cm high. The potter's wheel is attached to the seat. Having placed a lump of clay on the upper disk (25-30 cm in diameter), the master moves the lower disk (60 cm in diameter) with his foot, thus setting both disks in motion. The formation of the vessel begins with a lump of clay, which is then given a conical shape, then a cylindrical shape, the bottom is formed from the bottom up, then the middle and upper part of the vessel, then leveled with a damp cloth or a piece of leather. When the vessel is ready, with the help of a strong thread or thin wire, the bottom of the vessel is separated from the wooden circle and placed on a shaded shelf to dry;
e) dried vessels are subjected to engobing (to close the pores on its walls from the inside and outside) with a solution of white or red clay, well ground and diluted with water. Then the vessels are dried again for two to three weeks;
e) vessels are decorated by various methods, including the application of dyes;
One way to decorate is to extrude ornaments with a fingernail or wooden spatula while the vessel is still wet. Thus, wavy, dotted, parallel lines are obtained.
Another decoration option is carried out after drying. Multi-colored clay (white, red, brown) and rocks containing iron oxide are used as dyes. They are crushed, ground and diluted with water. To obtain a drawing, paint is applied to the vessels with a special brush, rotating them on a potter's wheel. Often women were engaged in decorating vessels;
g) firing of clay vessels is carried out in special kilns for firing ceramics. Starting from the X-XIV centuries. horizontal ovens were more common. Vessels are placed in the furnace in different ways, depending on their shape.
Roasting lasts about 12 hours, and the fire is maintained constantly, only the temperature changes from stage to stage. There are two types of firing: with the penetration of oxygen at all stages, which leads to the production of red ceramics, or with incomplete combustion (non-oxidizing), which leads to the production of black ceramics. On the territory of Moldova there were pottery centers that specialized in firing both red and black ceramics: c. Chinisheuti, Rezina region, with. Yurchen, Nisporensky district, with. Hojinesti, Calarasi region, with. Ciganesti, Straseni region, with. Nikolaevka, Ungheni district, Comrat, Old Orhei (terracotta firing), etc. Vessels were fired once or twice, depending on the way they were decorated. For the most part, the products were covered with glaze or enamel in green, white, brown. To obtain this decorative effect, after the first firing, the vessels were covered with enamel obtained by burning lead, copper and mixing the resulting powder with sand and other substances. Then the vessels were fired again to make them glazed. Today, the enamelling operation is often carried out before firing, so as not to re-fire the vessels.
Types of ceramic vessels
Ceramic vessels met the requirements that were dictated by the lifestyle and activities of the population. Each item performed certain functions: storing food, preparing and eating food, transferring liquids, as well as decorative items, toys, etc. Vessels can be classified by color - black and red ceramics; in form - low, high and complex; according to the method of decoration - glazed and unglazed, painted and unpainted, polished and unpolished; ceramics of large and small forms, etc.
a) The most common were dishes for cooking, especially cabbage rolls, potatoes baked with meat, cabbage with meat, etc. For these products, it is very important to observe the shape and proportions, the size of the opening of the pot for the correct preparation of these dishes.
b) Each house had various pots for cooking and large tall earthenware vessels for storage. food products- "Gavanoase", in which they kept jam, jam, cheese, stew, lard, fat, sour kvass, etc.
c) Another large group of ceramic vessels included milk jugs, jugs (“burlui”) for water, wine, oil, for transferring liquid dishes to the field. They differed in shape and size. Depending on the purpose, the neck diameter of the jars varied (from 3 to 12 cm). Almost all were with pens.
d) There were a lot of low ceramic dishes: bowls, plates, dishes, pots. These products are known on the territory of Moldova since ancient times, their shapes and proportions differed depending on the purpose.
e) Small ceramic vessels (cups, lamps, salt shakers) and other decorative items - toys, ocarinas, figurines, etc.
Decor of ceramic vessels
To decorate ceramic vessels, many technical and decorative methods are used, thanks to which a special artistic and decorative traditional style is created. The decor of Moldavian ceramics is obtained as a result of various firing methods, thanks to which red, gray and black ceramics are obtained, decorations with indented and scratched ornaments, applying paints, enamel or glaze on red ceramics, engobe painting, etc. The color of ceramic vessels is based on a limited number of shades, obtained using colored clay: red, green, gray, white. By burning lead and copper, a green color was obtained.
Most often, there are ornaments consisting of straight, wavy, spiral, broken, dotted lines obtained by indentation, they also use appliqué, painting, containing zoomorphic, aeromorphic, geometric figures and plant motifs. All ornaments are harmoniously connected with the form and purpose of objects and are distinguished by great artistic expressiveness. Ceramic vessels were transported on carts throughout Moldova, they were sold and exchanged for grain and other products. The same was done by masters in the manufacture of cloth and bird.
Today, unlike in the past, few people in Moldova practice pottery, this craft is carried out by individual enthusiastic craftsmen and artists. They are supported by the Union of Folk Craftsmen, the National Museum of Nature and Ethnography, the Ministry of Culture, which organize various competitions and exhibitions.
Modern ceramics has undergone strong changes, some products contain elements of other cultures and complex innovations that are alien to folk traditions. At the moment, the artistic and technical phenomenon of clay processing and the creation of ceramic vessels needs a comprehensive scientific study. It is necessary to create institutions for the development, revival, development and promotion of this rich treasury of folk art, which is one of the objectives of the project.
Ceramics in antiquity is not only vessels. For a long time, the masters of Corinth produced flat ceramic slabs for the whole of Greece, with which they lined the walls of buildings and temples. They were most often decorated with voluminous relief. Here, in the temples, the Greeks brought ceramic tablets with promises to the gods (lag. vodvue - dedicated to the gods). Cool ceramic sculpture was widespread in the ancient world. The small town of Tanagra is especially famous for this sculpture. Here in the III century. BC. the art of small (5-30 cm) terracotta figurines (Italian terra cotta - burnt earth) reached its heyday. They depicted scenes from life and either served as children's toys or lowered into the grave.
Ceramics for an ordinary city dweller often replaced expensive metal products. And many household items were made in antiquity exclusively from clay (loom spindles, fishing sinkers, beehives, etc.).
In Athens, a whole quarter of potters was engaged in ceramic production. It was located in the northwestern part of the city and was partially located outside the city wall, near a large necropolis - the official burial place of the Athenians who fell in the war. Vessels made here were used both in everyday life and for ritual purposes. The technology was so simple that child labor was often used. This made it possible to organize both small family workshops and large-scale production with many slaves. The production of ceramics was so widely established that the name of the quarter (Keramik) became the name for all clay products.
Gradually, three methods of manufacturing ceramic vessels developed. The most ancient was the molding of the vessel by hand. A little later, a potter's wheel appeared. and then some small products began to be made using molding dies (negatives). Naturally, the nature of the design of the vessel also changed. And if in the first method the design is still chaotic and weakly dependent on the shape of the vessel, in the second method tiered paintings are characteristic, then in the third method there are relief decorations. eight
The very form of the vessel very early began to be perceived as human-like (anthropomorphic). A person felt the vessel as a small container, in contrast to a large container - a house or a city. In antiquity, the main content of ceramic vessels was wine - the blood of the earth.
Naturally, the ornament that adorned them, one way or another, corresponded to this purpose - to be a receptacle for the soul of the earth at different stages (it was in the blood that they "saw" the soul at that time). True, today numerous household vases have not reached us. We know only the most expensive samples, made especially durable and mainly from Etruscan burials.
Already in early antiquity, we find a huge variety of forms of vases and their paintings. In the Cretan-Mycenaean world, huge 2-meter pithoi were used to store grain, which were stabbed into the ground to a depth exceeding human height. So in hot conditions it was better to preserve food. On the other hand, tiny cups with thin, almost transparent walls were used in everyday life. Today they are aptly referred to as "eggshells". Here the painting is dominated by white, black, red and blue colors.
Clay making has come a long way. The difference in the artistic tastes of different peoples affected the ways of decorating ceramics. Artistic works of different times and peoples are so different in ornamentation and forms that in most cases it is possible to accurately determine to which era and to which people they belong. While the Egyptians, Chaldeans, Persians and other Eastern peoples preferred bright vitrified colors in their painting, and their artistic ceramic products, dating back even to the most distant periods, are covered with glaze and painted with enamel paints of the simplest composition, in ancient Greece and Etruria not knew neither glaze nor colored enamels.
The heyday of ceramics in ancient Greece was preceded by the development of pottery on the island of Crete, one of the leading centers of the Aegean culture. Cretan vessels of different periods have come down to us, their painted decor is very diverse. Most often, the painting was distinguished by a lively dynamic rhythm, free smoothness of the pattern. Among the most famous and perfect are vases of the “kamares” style (this is the name of the cave where they were found), with graceful rounded shapes, covered with black lacquer (a type of flux engobe), on which large, very peculiar patterns of star-shaped forms, swirling rosettes, leaves and petals inscribed in softly rounded ovals (about 1800 BC). A vase of the so-called marine style from Gurnia (mid-2nd millennium BC) is also known, the shape of which is somewhat vague, fluid, subject to a painting depicting a large octopus, as if embracing the entire body with its flexible tentacles; around it are algae and corals. The image of the sea elements is given by the greenish tones of the background of the painting.
In the policies of ancient Greece, ceramics became one of the main types of artistic craft. It reaches its heyday in the VI-V centuries. BC e. Products of Greek masters were exported far beyond the borders of Greece and had a great influence on local products everywhere. Leading place among Greek ceramics was the production of various vessels. The famous Greek vases were not a luxury item; a large army of potters made them from simple clay, only varnish was used for painting. But with all the limitations of the materials used (the Greeks did not know either transparent glazes or colored enamels), painted vases turned into genuine works of art. In black-figure compositions, painting was done with black lacquer on an unpainted background, in red-figure compositions, dark lacquer, on the contrary, covered the background, leaving the image unpainted (its reddish color is the natural color of a clay shard).
Depending on the purpose, different types of vessels have been developed. The krater had a wide mouth, it was intended for mixing wine with water; kilik - a flat bowl with two handles - they drank wine from it; a slender, small, elongated lekythos with one handle was intended for storing oil during funeral ceremonies. The most famous for its extremely harmonious and noble proportions is a slender amphora - a vase with two high handles, intended for storing oil and wine. Each type of vase corresponded to its purpose, reflected a vital need. At the same time, the forms and decor were well thought out, taking into account the plastic properties of the material itself, clay.
In the second half of the 6th century, the primacy in ceramics passed to Athens. Athenian ceramics dominated the Anglo market for more than 2(X) years. The first style of Athenian vase painting was the black-figure style - traditionally black figures against the background of the natural color of baked clay. A drawing was applied to a still damp vessel with paint prepared from clay, water and wood ash. Lines that should have remained red (folds of clothing, tree branches) were scratched by the herd. Then the vessel was put into the furnace. At a certain point, all the holes in the furnace were closed, a reaction took place, and the vessel turned black. Then the temperature in the furnace was lowered, the hole was opened. The painted places remained black, and the unpainted ones turned red. Thus, the paint was fixed on the surface of the vessel.
On black-figure vessels, not the entire surface was painted, but only selected fields. delimiting them with ornamental borders. At the same time, the entire surface of the vessel was now filled with a shiny, mirror varnish. The Athenian vessel has already ceased to conceal the unknown in its depths, becoming more and more a reflection of real life. And soon the first signatures of potters and vase-painters appeared on ceramics. Thus, the original meaning of the ceramic vessel was gradually forgotten, and it left the ritual for art. 9
1.2.3 Western European ceramics
In Western Europe, ceramics began to develop intensively during the Renaissance. Ceramic products from the Arab countries, especially from the Mauritanian part of Spain, had a great influence. Under the influence of Spanish pottery with tin glaze, known as Spanish-Moorish products (the center of manufacture is Valencia), at the end of the 14th century. in Italy (in the cities of Faenza, Urbino, Gubbio), the production of similar ceramics began to develop intensively, but already under the name "majolica". Covering the items with white tin glaze created an ideal background for painting. In turn, Italian majolica paid considerable attention to the development of majolica in Germany in the 15th century, as well as in France (especially in Nevers) in the 16th-18th centuries, where it became known as faience.
Attempts to obtain their own, European porcelain began already in the 15th century. It is known that in 1470 the Venetian craftsman Anzuokpo made a translucent ceramic vessel. Half a century later, his compatriot, mirror maker Petpnger. declared that he could make real Chinese porcellan, and in Florence, at the court of Fraichesko Medici, at the end of the 16th century, they managed to get “soft porcelain”, which was later dubbed “Medici-porcellan”. The product from it was transparent, but yellowish. On him. a brilliant lead glaze was applied over the decor of cobalt blue and manganese-violet floral ornament. At the same time, imitation of porcelain was also obtained - a special kind of opaque glass, but very fragile and afraid of firing.
Ceramics of Castelli of the 16th-18th centuries are associated with the Province of Teramo, the Region of Abruzzo, the Museum of Ceramics of Castelli, the Museum of Art of Barbella (Chieti), the National Museum of Abruzzo (Aquila), the Fusca Collection (Castelli), the Terregna Collection, the Giacomini Collection (Rome), the Cerulli Irelli Collection ( Teramo), the Consulate General of the Italian Republic in St. Petersburg, the Chamber of Commerce and Industry and Agriculture of Teramo.
Castelli is a small Italian town in the Teramo mountains in the Abruzzo region. It was there, over the course of three centuries in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, that amazingly diverse majolica was created, which could compete with the products of such famous Italian majolica industries as Urbino, Faenza, Deruta, Castel Durante, Pesaro, Montelupo.
Majolica Castelli is pharmaceutical utensils - jugs, albarelli, vases that served as a container for medicinal herbs and potions, as well as decorating the interiors of pharmacies.
In the 1980s, it was discovered that amazing works of art were being created in Castelli as early as the 16th century. As a result of excavations in this city, it turned out that it was here that the brilliant "family" of pharmaceutical vases, jugs and albarelli (cylindrical vessels) Orsini-Colonna, located in the largest museums of the world, was made.
Many decors depict a bear, symbolizing the Orsini family, hugging a column - the coat of arms of the Colonna family. This was one of the most remarkable discoveries in the archeology of the 20th century. The bright painting of this pottery usually coexists with the inscriptions of the names of medicines. This group of majolica, according to typology, was united around a vase from the British Museum, on which these vessels were stored. Painting covers almost their entire surface.
Saints, heroes of Roman history, breast portraits of women and men were often depicted here. The unusual style of Castelli ceramics bears the influence of Italian and German engravings of the 15th-16th centuries, which local craftsmen sometimes used as models for painting.
In addition to pharmaceutical majolica, of great interest are ceramic tiles the city of Castelli. Here is the church of San Donato, the ceiling of which is decorated with tiles, executed in an expressive manner, similar to the painting of the Orsini Colonna vases. The painting, both on the vases and on the tiles of the church of San Donato, is largely by the family of local Pompeii ceramists, including Orazio Pompeii.
In the 17th century, in the painting of the pharmaceutical majolica of Castelli, some ceramists paid a lot of attention to the white background that majolica gives, they assigned less space to the painting. The colorful palette has become poorer, sustained in ocher, blue and green tones. This style of decor was called "compendiario".
Later, a new style of painting was developed in Castelli, somewhat watercolor in its tonality. The range of depicted subjects was enriched with genre scenes from everyday rural life and very finely executed landscapes, usually with ancient ruins. From the colorful Renaissance majolica, the pottery of the Castelli of the 17th and 18th centuries differs in light, pale tones, which, despite some fading, produce a harmonious impression. An interesting master of this time was Antonio Lollo. The greatest artistic achievements belong to the 17th and 18th centuries by the Grue, Gentile and Capelleti families, who created majolica in Castelli for two years. ten
1.3. The emergence and development of fishing in Russia
1.3.1. Ceramic dishes of ancient Rus'
The most ancient clay shards, made in the technique of black-glazed smoky ceramics, were found during excavations near the village of Trepilya, Poltava region, and date back to 5-6 thousand years BC. Their study by archaeologists led to the conclusion that at that time there already existed a highly developed culture called Tripilskaya. One can only guess when the potter's wheel was first promoted, but we can say with certainty that its run has not been stopped so far.
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The material of the study was the Latin words caput, testa and their reflexes in French, their derivatives on French soil, their semasiological fate in French, with the involvement of material from related Romance languages, as well as the common Adyghe shkhe and its derivatives. The etymological reconstruction of Latin lexemes is closely related to the question of the relationship between tte and chef in French. In French, there are two parallel semantic and word-formation systems that form two etymological nests of words that go back to the Latin etymons caput and testa, one of the main meanings of which is the meaning of "head". There are periods in the history of these two lexemes when they coexisted and replaced each other. When starting to analyze the semantic evolution of the two signified lexemes and their derivatives in French, one should turn to the etymology of these words, while drawing on the extensive material provided by studies in the field of Indo-European studies. The main meanings of the Latin caput: head (upper part of the human body), highest point, peak, person, face (when listed). If we turn to the most ancient layers of the Indo-European languages, we can find common roots, one way or another approaching in meaning to caput: - kap-ut-(e) lo - head, kneecap. And then - initially, something in the form of a bowl. In the ancient Indian language - kapuccala (from kaput) - hair on the back of the head, braid, bowl, kaptrubh - tip, peak, point. Based on this, it can be assumed that the meanings “head”, “upper main point” were the most ancient in caput. Apparently, the head was understood as the upper, main point or upper end of an object. It can probably be considered that the meaning of "head" is a specification of the concept of the top, main point or upper end. A. Meie also notes that “kap” is a common form, spread with the help of es –kes [Meie 2002:405]. But it should be pointed out that the root kes in many languages is the basis of the meaning "to cut", which, according to the reconstruction, is the first word and the first meaning. This basis with the semantic element “beat”, “cut”, “stab”, is part of a vast semantic spectrum, which includes the meanings selected by us for further use in the analysis, such as: “wealth”, “share”, “part”, “place”, “hair”, “evening” (lit. “limit”, “term”), “top”, “upper part”, “head”, “end”, “beginning”, “time”, “year ”, “brain”, “sky”, “goal”, “free”, “will”. All the listed meanings are not artificial constructions based on arbitrary associations, but realities established on the basis of strict empiricism, revealed in the process of comparative historical analysis of semantic transformations in the Indo-European languages [Makovsky 1988:39]. The etymological nests under consideration are very ancient and date back to one of the oldest roots established by science today. Other meanings, therefore, are later and appear through metaphorical and metonymic transfers. The following twelve meanings of caput are taken from the dictionary of I.Kh. Butler. We list them: 1. head; 2. a) upper part; to the begining; c) end; 3. mind; reason; 4. person; face; 5. life; 6. unit of account; 7. head, chief; 8. essence, main; 9. main place, capital; 10. bulk, capital, main fund; 11. chapter, item, department; 12. civil rights. The direct successor of caput in French is, as you know, the word chief (m), which appeared in the 9th century. It is generally accepted that for the first time the Latin word testa appears in the meaning of "veil", "covering", in the more specific meaning of "shell", "shell", "scales". Testa is derived from the Latin verb tego, texi, tectum, tegere "to cover". From the 4th century AD testa is used in the meaning of "skull". This meaning has survived to this day in the Romanian word eacta. In the meaning of "head" testa begins to be used in popular Latin. In French, testa appears from the 10th century onwards. The Latin testa, in the meaning of "head", appeared, apparently, later, "denoted any hard shell; it was originally applied to what we also call the "cranial box" (cf. English Brain-pan, German Hirnschale "cranial box"). The meaning of "skull" is clearly looming in late Latin (Antoninus Placentine: vidi testam de homine "I saw a human skull"), and already there it serves to designate the head: testa - caput vel vas fictile "head or earthen vessel" (C.G.L., V, 526 - 539), whence "skull" in Old French teste. It is likely that, as an anatomical term, testa was in use among Roman physicians long before it began to appear in texts. [Benveniste 1974:338]. The word testa also correlated with the concepts of "shard, earthen vessel, pot". An analysis of the etymological meanings of the original word testa and its derivatives shows that there is some associative connection between the concepts of "clay" and "head", which goes far into the depths of history, revealing very old associative connections in human consciousness. And if such an associative connection has existed for a long time, then it becomes clear why testa > (tte) could acquire the meaning of “head” by metaphorical transfer and replace caput > chief over time. It is quite acceptable to assume that "shell, shard, clay" are the primary meanings of the word testa. But there are other versions that seem to us more convincing. Based on the anthropocentric method adopted by science today, it is believed that the human body served as the basis for modeling the Universe, microcosm and macrocosm. Following this principle, we propose an "anthropocentric" version of the etymological solution. The system of proofs is built in the following way: 1) the first roots and words, as proved by scientists on the vast language material of different families, were words with the meaning “beat”, “cut”, “bend”, represented by parallel root complexes, one of the variants of which are kes –tes; 2) it is known from the literature that one of the meanings of testa was the meaning of Hirnschale "skull", "top of the cranial (lid) of the cranium"; 3) in Romanian, this Latin word retained the meaning of a skull; 4) it is assumed that the human skull could be used as a vessel for drinking, earlier than a vessel made of clay, especially fired. Our version is supported by a note from the etymological dictionary by W. Meyer-Lübke, who wrote that there is an assumption that the French word tte corresponds to the German Kopf in the meaning of “the head of an enemy used as a vessel for drinking” and Hirnschale “skull”, “top of the cranial ( lid) of the cranium. testa can hardly be explained otherwise. It seems to us that the linguistic intuition of the scientist suggested to him the correct decision, which corresponds to logic. The version generally accepted so far cannot explain such an important issue as testa, denoting "pottery", began to mean "head". This question is also raised by T. Cravens, without giving an answer. Cravens suggests that such a feature of an object as a rounded shape could serve as the basis for such a transition. At the very least, he argues, there is evidence that testa was "skull" in the 9th century, became "head" by the 10th century, and that it retained the meaning of "pot" well into the 10th century. We make an assumption that the meaning of “skull”, possibly coming from the meaning of “cut off (separated) head”, was primary, then by analogy, after replacing the vessel from the skull with a vessel made of baked clay, this name was transferred to a vessel made of clay, then, began to denote a hard shell, etc., and finally, it again began to denote a head. This first transition of meaning belongs to very remote antiquity. In our opinion, the most important conclusion is that the original idea "head" did not disappear, but reappeared over time.
The relationship between caput and testa is reflected in the Romance languages, in particular French. The relationship between the French words chief and tte seems to repeat the relationship between their Latin etymons. Tte, which appeared in French, was subject to less metaphorization than chief. The Old French tte had one meaning "head". Subsequent meanings, such as "head", "upper part", appear later. It is this fact that leads to the conclusion that the Old French tte had only one specific meaning "head", while chief carried a large semantic load. Such a large number of meanings could lead to a weakening of its main meaning in the Old French period - "head". Due to the weakening of the main meaning, it became necessary to replace chief with another word, which was tte. The fact that in the Old French chief the meaning “end, edge”, and not the meaning, as one might expect, “head”, which is considered the main one, has received the greatest development, should be explained, in our opinion, by two reasons: 1) the antiquity of one of the original meanings "end, beginning, top point"; 2) the displacement of the word tte from the Old French chief in the meaning of "head". According to the author of the study, the process of replacing caput with testa is not explained only by a simple “renewal” of parts of the human body. One of the reasons is, of course, the ambiguity, the semantic overload of the lexeme "caput", the redistribution of meanings, the rethinking of caput corporis "the main part of the body", which led to ambiguity, and later to its replacement with another word. The question immediately arises why the word testa, the main meaning of which by that time was “shard”, according to well-known dictionaries, replaced caput. Apparently, this process was more complex and affected the deep associative connections that reflected human thinking in very ancient times. One of the reasons could be linguistic redundancy in the form of lexical synonymy. An etymological and semantic analysis of the entire hierarchical structure of the Latin word testa will help to better understand the reasons for replacing caput with testa. In the academic Latin-Russian dictionary by I.Kh. Butler gives the following meanings of testa 1) brick, tile; 2) earthen vessel, mug or jug; bowl; urn; 3) a fragment, a fragment of a bone; shard; 4) ratchet; 5) shell, shield; sink; ice cover, layer of ice; 6) snail; 7) "tiles" - special kind applause invented by Nero; 8) skull; 9) red spot [Dvoretsky 1976:1008]. As we see, in the semantic structure of the Latin testa there is no meaning "head" at all. Questions naturally arise: how did such a metaphorical transfer occur? what exactly was the meaning of testa that became the starting point for such a change in meaning? To answer the questions that arise, you should pay attention to the words with the same root and their meanings: tessella (demin. to tessera) - a cube; tile; playing bone; tessellarius - master mosaicist; tessellatum - tiled floor; tessellatus, a, um - mosaic; tessera - 1) a playing bone; 2) board, tablet, tile (with a password, military call); 3) order, prescription; 4) guest plate; 5) warrant; 6) mosaic tiles; tesserarius - 1) relating to the game of dice; 2) tesserarius (transmitting military orders of the commander); dicer; tesserula - 1) pebbles for mosaic work; 2) stamp or token; 3) a sign for voting, a ballot paper; 4) dice; testaceum - a kind of brick; testaceus - 1) from baked clay; brick or tiled; 2) covered with a shield or shell; 3) brick red. Testeus - clay, that is, "created from dust" (indumentum animi Macr). (Dvoretsky 1976:1008). Testu - earthen vessel, earthen lid; Testuatium - bread or cake baked in earthenware; Testula - 1) clay tablet; shard for giving voice, trans. ostracism; 2) clay lamp, bowl. (ibid., 1009). The semantic analysis of lexemes shows that all of them directly or indirectly go back to the meaning of "clay": "clay" > "burnt clay" > "brick"; "vessel"; "tablet". The concept of "clay", first of all, correlates with the biblical myth about the creation of the first man by God from clay. A man made of clay, according to the metonymic transfer, the head as part of the human body, is also made of clay, respectively. Arguing further, it comes out in parallel: a vessel made of baked clay > a vessel (cauldron - cranium) corresponds to the head, the receptacle of the mind, thoughts.
The head corresponds with the sky, the upper world, etc. Another meaning of testa "tablet" gave birth to words and meanings associated with the concepts: the right to vote; ballot; order; will, etc. As noted above, the meaning of testa "head" appears only in late Latin, and, as the analysis of medieval texts shows, it is in this meaning that it is used in the language. Therefore, we can conclude that, unlike caput, which both in Latin and then in French retains the meaning of “head”, along with other basic meanings, such as “top”, “end - beginning”, the having thus preserved continuity, the word testa > tte, having appeared in French, in the meaning of “head”, had no other derivative meanings at that time, i.e. could express this concept of "head" in its entirety, and that is why it was able to replace caput > chief. The Adyghe shkhe has a no less complicated history of origin. The word schkhe, apparently, refers to the oldest layer of the vocabulary of the Abkhaz-Adyghe group of languages. According to scientists, the appearance of this word should be attributed to the turn of the 1st-2nd millennium BC. There is no doubt that this word is an element of the basic set of vocabulary. G.A. Klimov established that the basis of the vocabulary fund of the Abkhazian-Adyghe languages is “the original root word and its numerous derivatives, using extremely wide derivational possibilities here. Approximately 400 lexemes have been identified, dating back to the proto-linguistic state, and reflecting the universal conditions of society, - this includes the designations of natural phenomena, the names of elements of wild flora and fauna, kinship terms, the nomenclature of body parts, personal and some demonstrative pronouns, numerals of the first ten (for some exceptions), as well as verbs that convey elementary actions. In the etymological dictionary of the Abkhaz-Adyghe languages, writes G.A. Klimov, primordial lexemes are fixed, among which he names “mountain, high” (abkh. a-sxa^) [Klimov 1986: 52]. Vyach.Sun. Ivanov finds lexical correspondences of the Hattian wahab "gods" in the Abkhaz-Adyghe languages (Adyg. Uashkho "vault of heaven", Kabard. Uashkhue "height of the sky, heavenly blue", Ubykh. Waha "thunder and lightning, god", including in archaic spells that find a parallel in the Abkhaz-Abaza: Abkhaz Uashkho, etc.) [Ivanov 1983: 6]. Further, he gives correspondences ak "ceiling, roof" with the Proto-Adyghe form heg "mountain top", cf. ubyh. ak "top", abkh. Ashkha "mountain" [Ivanov 1983:26]. The Adyghe uashkhue//uashkho is brought closer to the proto-Hittite wahav “god” and the Kassite mashum, in pronunciation, obviously, washum. [Balkarov 1991:46]. All the above facts speak of the genetic relationship of such concepts, hence the lexemes denoting them, such as: - sky - god - peak - head. Most likely, the color designation shkhue "blue, blue" also genetically goes back to a common root. Washhue literally means "blue sky". This word refers to the oldest layer of the vocabulary of the Adyghe languages and reflects the era of the pagan belief of the Adyghes in the sky as the main god [Balkarov1991:45]. Vyach.Sun. Ivanov also establishes a hypothetical connection between the Abkhaz-Adyghe names of the sky, god and the Hattian wa-hab/w with the pro-Adyghe *ha "magic" , Kabard Shkhue 'poison, poison'), cf. ubyh. (from Adyghe) xaw ‘witchcraft’, sxax ‘bewitch’: as sxaxn ‘I bewitch him’ [Ivanov 1983:7]. Wed also in the Kabardino-Circassian language khushkhue ‘medicine’, shkhukh ‘poison’, 1ushkhye ‘poppy’. A.K.Shagirov gives numerous semantic parallels with Abkh.-Abaz. A-hyy / khyy, ubyh. She "head", Ubykh. Shkhe (ashkhe) "people". It finds the match abh valid. A-hy with Georgian txemi "top", "top", "crown", Svan. txwim "head", "top". He cites the opinion of B.S. Balkarov regarding the hypothetical rapprochement of the Veinakh (Chechen) khye "brain"; "crown" with Adyghe shkh'e, Abaza kh'a "head" [Shagirov 1977: 147].
As A.Kh. Naloev, the word shkhe refers to a number of words like tkhe, which are decomposed into two components: -t-shch - and -khe-. The first elements -t- and -u- are the remnants of the former affixes of the "grammatical class of things". As the author writes, -u- also acts as a verbal prefix, expressing spatial relations, and a nominal suffix with the meaning of place. In both cases, the affix -ш- indicates the location of a given object, so it could be understood in the general meaning of "location" or "abode". The second element -khe- is derived from the common name of a wolf, dog, jackal in the Adyghe languages -khe. It is known that among the peoples of the Caucasus, the wolf is a deified totemic animal. Therefore, the element khe is present in words expressing a deity, divine powers and representations associated with them, for example: thye - god, khede - corpse, pshhyepe - dream, khyenape - icon , shkhe - head. Further, A.Kh. Naloev writes that the word schkhe - head contains the element -khe-, which the ancient Adygs used to designate the organ of thought. The expression "Si gure si shkh'ere zetelshch", which literally translates as "Head and heart lie on top of each other", means "I agree, I decided", confirms that the Circassians ranked the head as an organ of thought along with the heart. It is known that all peoples from ancient times revered thought, reason, the idea of some kind of divine, supernatural power, deity. There is no reason to believe that the ancient Adygs had a different opinion. The place of storage of the "divine thought" can be called a divine name, and the element khe in the word shkhe - "head" must mean "dog-god" [Naloev 1967:254]. In the ancient zoomorphic model of the Universe, the dog had the symbolic meaning of a guard at the gates of hell. According to the myth-epic tradition, the dog accompanied the souls of the dead to the afterlife [Makovsky 1996: 114].
We have reason to believe that the primary meaning of schkhe goes back to the same single etymological complex that is characteristic of all the languages of the world, namely the verb “cut”, “beat”, “stab”, “thresh” [Melnichuk 1991, 3:51] . In the academic edition of the Nart heroic epic, in the cycle about Nart Batraz, the following couplet with a translation is found. Se inyzhkher zheshch mazekhem sogakhe, Berer demyk1uezh shkhede-shkhye1ueu isogaue [Narts: 119] / On a moonless night, I make the inyzhi reap bread, / On a moonless night, I make the inzhi thresh (translated on p. 271 of the same edition). In the Adyghe languages, there are the words shkhel'e - "ear", shkhel'e kyyish1yn - "pour about the ear", shkhel - "mill" with numerous derivatives [SKChYA: 779]. In the dictionary of the modern Kabardino-Circassian dictionary, we found the following lexemes, derived from retaining these ancient meanings, for example: gueshkhkhekhuk1yn - to separate, lag behind, fall away; pishkheryuk1yn - wandering, to lag behind someone; yshkhehuk1yn - to separate, separate from someone, something; ischkheryuen - to wander somewhere by chance.
From the history anatomical terms
acetabulum, i n acetabulum of the pelvic bone
According to one version, the word is formed from acetum"vinegar": this was the name of a vessel for vinegar and a small cup for catching a ball thrown during the game. However, in the Middle Ages, this name was raised to the verb accepto"I accept" and wrote acceptabulum, because this cavity, as it were, receives the head of the femur.
ampulla, ae f flask-shaped vessel, ampoule
In Latin, this was the name of a vessel made of clay or glass with a narrow neck and a bubble-like swollen bottom. Perhaps this word comes from ampla-bulla"big bubble"
amygdala, ae f[gp. amygdale"almond", lat. tonsilla (see)] tonsil An inflamed palatine tonsil is similar to an almond fruit in size, shape, and indentations on the surface of the shell. The name was transferred to similar in structure lingual, pharyngeal, tubal tonsils - tonsilla palatina, lingualis, pharyngea, tubaria and on an ovoid formation, a lobule on the lower surface of the cerebellar hemispheres.
anatomy, ae f[gp. anatemno“I dissect, I dismember”] anatomy The art of dismembering a corpse, the only ancient means for understanding the structure of a living body.
antagonists, is t[from gr… anti-"against" + agon"struggle"; hence the "agony"] adversary, antagonist
Operating in the opposite direction. In anatomy, for example, muscles are flexors and extensors, adductors and abductors, etc.
aponeurosis, is f aponeurosis, tendon sprain, flat wide tendon
Originally a word nera called the nerves, and the word neuron- all that is now called "fibrous". Sometimes the term aponeurosis was used in a double sense: as a transition of muscle meat into a tendon and as a tendon proper. Later, this term was called a wide and thin tendon, dense fascia (cm.).
apophysis, is f[gp. aro-"from" + phyo“produce”] process, outgrowth
In contrast to the epiphysis, which fuses with the mass of the bone, the apophysis always forms a single whole with it. arbor, oris - tree; arborvitae"tree of life (cerebellum)". A balm made from thuja (Thuia occidentalis), which was therefore called arbor vitae, was considered a universal life-lengthening agent. .
artefactum, i n[lat. ars, artis"art" +facio“I do”] made artificially, artifact, result of human activity
artery, ae f[gr. aёr"air" + tereo"contain"] artery
By this term, the Greeks first correctly called the windpipe, trachea. Although we have known for over 2,000 years that arteries do not contain air, the name "artery" has stuck for the blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart.
atlas, antis t[gr. Atlas"Atlant" - a titan that holds the vault of heaven in the west of the Mediterranean Sea. Therefore, the mountains in northwestern Africa are called Atlas, and the ocean is called Atlantic] atlas, the first cervical vertebra that supports the head
It revolves around an odontoid process located on the upper surface of the body of the second vertebra, which is incorrectly called "epistropheus".
atrium, i n vestibule, atrium
In ancient times, this was the name of the living room in a Roman house: the smoke from the hearth came out through a hole in the roof, so its walls were black with soot [lat. ater"black"]; outerwear was left in the vestibulum [lat. vestis"clothes"].
axis, is t axle (wheels)
So sometimes the second cervical vertebra is designated, the tooth of which, dens epistrophei, serves as the axis around which the atlas rotates. (cm.).
caput, itis n head, head
The former name of the testa head is "testa etiam caput dicitur, quia sensus in eo originem capiunt", i.e. "Testa called and head, since they take in it ( capiunt) beginning of feeling. Romans word testa denoted any fired earthenware (from torreo"burn").
cauda equina[lat. Equus"horse"] ponytail
The spinal cord at its lower end breaks up into many cords, which looks like a ponytail.
centrum, i n[gp. kentron"the point of the compass", and then - "the point at which they put it to describe the circle"] center
cephalika[gp. kephale(lat. cephale-)"head" (sc. vena)] head saphenous artery of the arm, flowing into the axillary vein. It was customary for physicians of the Middle Ages to bleed from this vein for headaches, “quia abstrahit sanguinem e capite”, that is, “because it diverts blood from the head.”
cisterna, ae f cistern, pond, underground reservoir The Romans built cisterns in the ground and collected rainwater in them. The assimilation of the membranous fusiform sac in the region of the second and third lumbar vertebrae to a cistern is not entirely successful.
clavicula, ae f[lat. reduce from clavis"key, latch, constipation"] clavicle. Back in the 17th century. in Italy, S-shaped hecks (claviculae) were used. Thus the term clavicula descended from clavis not in the sense of a key, which the Romans looked like a modern one, but in terms of resemblance to a latch, a latch.
sucker, ygis t[gr. sokkuh"cuckoo"] coccyx, the lower end of the spinal column, which seemed to the Greeks like a cuckoo's beak The modern term for the coccyx is os coccygis.
colon, coli n the main section of the large intestine (intestinum crassum), the colon (with its location resembling a wheel rim)
cranium, ii n[gr. cranion"scull", cranos"helmet"] skull The Greeks called it "quia cerebnim velut galea defendit", i.e. "because like a helmet it protects the brain." In Latin, the skull is called cranium, and the roof of the skull calvaria. Diminutive in Russian shingles began to be used to refer to fired clay tiles that cover the roof of a house.
crypta, ae f[gp. crypto"I hide"; the Greeks called cellars for storing food, the Romans - long vaulted galleries, later - underground chapels and chapels in ancient temples] glands with a simple non-branching duct
There are simple tubular and acinous glands, simple and branched recesses in the tonsils.
cubitus, i t[lat. cubo"lying"] elbow
The Romans usually reclined at the feast, leaning on their left elbow and forearm. The Greeks called the forearm olene(hence ulna"ulna") or kybiton.
dentes sapientlae seu serotini [lat. sapientia"wisdom" + serotinus"late"] last molars
They often erupt even after the age of 18, "cum homo sapere incipit", that is, "when a person becomes wise."
diaphragma, atis n[gp. dia-"across" +phrasso“I fence off, separate with a partition”] partition, abdominal obstruction
This is the name of the dome-shaped muscle that delimits the chest and abdominal cavities.
digitus, i t finger
The first finger on the hand pollex, icis t [lat. roPeo"to have power, to possess"]. In Greek this finger is called anticheir[gr. anti-"against" + cheir"hand"], i.e. "opposed to the hand." First toe on foot hallux, ucis m. The second finger on the hand index, icis t[lat. indico"indicate"]. third finger - digitus medius[lat. medius"average"]. The Romans also called it digitus impudicus, since it was they who were pointed out the indecent [Lat. impudicus"shameless"]. Fourth finger - digitus anularis[lat. anulus"ring, ring"] or digitus medicus, since on this finger the doctors wore a ring with the image of the symbol of medicine (snakes, Aesculapius - the god of healing, etc.), using this ring as the personal seal of the doctor. Fifth finger - digitus minimus[lat. minimus"smallest"] or digitus auricularis[lat. auricula"ear"], as it is convenient for cleaning the ear. The word pinky- Old Russian, formed from an adjective pinky, i.e., smaller, insignificant.
duodenum, i n duodenum
Ancient Greek doctors named the part of the small intestine closest to the stomach dodecadactylon enteron[gp. dodeca"twelve" + dactylos"finger", enteron"gut"], not quite accurately counting 12 transverse fingers in it. This was translated into Russian as duodenal. latin word duodenum[lat. duodenus"twelvefold"] was created artificially as a translation from ancient Greek.
dura mater[lat. durus"solid", mater- not only "mother", but in general "source, basis"] dura mater
Translated into Russian - "hard mother". Wed "Liber regius" meninx sclera (pacheia) and meninx lepte. The Greek names of the shells are preserved in the names of their inflammation: lepto- and pachymeningitis. In this term, contrary to the rules of the Latin language, the adjective comes before the noun. Full term: dura mater cerebri (encephali) et medullae spinalis.
emissary, ii n[lat. e-"you-, from-" + mitto"let" = emitto"release"] outlet channel. This word the Romans called the channels for draining the fields.
fontanella, ae f[it. diminutive of Fonte"source, fountain" translation from lat. fontculus oifans"source"] fontanel, a membranous gap between the bones of the skull in an infant.
The term of Italian surgeons of the 13th century, who, in case of diseases of the nasal cavity and eyes, cauterized with a red-hot iron at the junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures, causing the release of a fluid, which they considered a harmful secretion of the brain.
glottis, idis f[gp. will reduce by glotta"uvula"] vocal apparatus, consisting of the vocal folds and the glottis. One of the hematopoietic organs, which has nothing to do with the brain, got its name only by its external resemblance to it.
meninx, ingis f meninges
A term used by the Greeks to refer to various shells. Aristotle designated them only the meninges, which has survived to this day. Wed dura, pia mater.
mitralis, e[lat. mitra"long sash, belt, headband"; later - "miter" of the bishop] bicuspid valve in ostium venosum sinistrum The shape of this valve is somewhat similar to a miter.
module[lat. modulus umysh. from mode"measure, unit of measurement, scale"] unit of comparison.
In the doctrine of the proportions of the human body, the unit of measurement was the length of the middle finger, face, hand, foot, nose, spine, but most often the height of the head.
muscle, i t[gp. mys, lat. muscle"mouse", little one. from "mouse"] muscle (cf. lacertus).
It was the ancient Greek scientists who gave the muscle its name. mys"mouse", since some long muscles (for example, the biceps of the shoulder) seemed to them like a trembling mouse with a hunched back when contracted. In long muscles, a head, abdomen and tail are distinguished (caput, venter, cauda). In Russian until the 19th century. used and mouse, and muscle.
nervus, i t [gr. peipop"everything is white and fibrous: tendon, ligament"] nerve
Nervosus- "wiry"; in anatomy "nervous". In the Middle Ages, this term denoted everything that is currently called fibrous, connective tissue. Wed aponeurosis.
os hyoideuin[gp. hys, hyos"piggy" + oides"similar"] hyoid bone
Name hyoidum is explained by the fact that the Greeks saw in this bone a resemblance to the letter v or with a pig snout, a pig snout.
orbita, ae f[lat. orbis"circle"] wheel, track
For the first time, this term was used to designate the eye socket in the translation of Avicenna's Canon, although this depression, similar to a four-sided lying pyramid, is not a circle or a furrow.
palma, ae f [“paddle of an oar”] palm, deepening The ancient Greek doctors called both the palm and the whole hand: during swimming, it serves as a kind of oar. A tree with leaves resembling a hand with outstretched fingers is also called palma. The whole brush is called hand, palm - palma(palm - a symbol of glorification and greetings in the Ancient East). There are skin folds on the palm, which palmists guess (cheir"hand" + manteia"Divination"): the line of life, the line of the head, the line of the heart and others. Since the skin folds on the fingers and the palmar surface of the hand are different for all people, fingerprinting is based on this (Greek. dactylos- "finger" + scopeo- “consider”), a section of forensic science that studies the patterns of the palmar surface of the phalanges of the fingers.
phalanx, ngis f [гp phalanx"stump, phalanx"] segment of the finger. This term was introduced by Aristotle to refer to the fingers of the bones arranged in rows - like warriors in the "Macedonian phalanx", a special Greek military formation, where behind each warrior stood another, replacing the first when he was killed or wounded.
philtrum, i n [gr. phileo"I love", Philtrum"feigned potion, charms and everything that excites love"] groove between the nasal septum and upper lip
pia mater [lat."pious, gentle"; mater- not only "mother", but in general "source, basis"] pia mater. Translated into Russian - "soft mother". Wed dura mater cerebri (encephali). So in the Middle Ages, the Arabic terms denoting these shells were translated into Latin; in Arabic, some concepts were defined in terms of kinship, and the word "mother" also meant "birth, maintenance, feeding." This Arabic term entered anatomy when translated in the 11th century. into Latin of a summary medical essay "Liber regius"(“Royal Book”) of a doctor of the 10th century. Ghali Abbas from Iraq. The Greeks distinguished between two layers of the brain: meninx sclera (pacheia) and meninx lepte. The Greek names of the shells are preserved in the names of their inflammation: lepto- and pachymeningitis. Full term: pia mater cerebri (encephali). In this term, contrary to the rules of the Latin language, the adjective comes before the noun.
pomum Adami seu prominentia laryngea Adam's apple or laryngeal prominence
An outdated, but still found name for the protruding upper edge of the thyroid cartilage from the connection between the plates of this cartilage at a sharper angle in men with low voices. Expression pomum Adami associated with the legend of original sin: when God called: “Where are you, Adam?”, He choked on the remnant of an unswallowed apple that got stuck in the larynx. Therefore, all men must bear this sign "ad posteros propagatum istius maleficii", i.e. "for the memory of this atrocity in posterity."
pupilla, ae f[lat. will reduce "girl, small dressed baby doll"] pupil
It reflects a reduced figure of the one the person is looking at. Russian word pupil- diminutive of ghost"vision". They also talked about the pupil small mirror in the eye, ophthalmic window (eye).
rectum, i n[lat. rectus"straight" (sc. intestinum)] rectum. In humans, however, it is not straight, but forms bends, sacral and coccygeal (flexurae sacralis et coccygea). It is direct in animals, which Galen used for his anatomical studies. Some anatomists believe that it would be better to call this part of the intestine intestinum terminate.
rete mirabile[lat. miror"surprised"] wonderful network. Even before Galen, they knew that the internal carotid artery, where it enters the cranial cavity between the main bone and the dura mater, breaks up into a dense plexus, the number of branches of which surprised Galen very much, and he gave it a name maximum mirabile"greatest miracle" Commentators - interpreters of Galen created the term rete mirabile, preserved in anatomy. This is a tangle of branches arteria carotis intema then unites again into a single trunk, again crumbling into a network of small vessels in the choroid plexuses of the brain. According to the ancients, the carotid artery contained spiritus vitalis, which here turned into spiritus animalis, collected in the brain cavities, from where it spread through the nerve trunks throughout the body. The miraculous network is still called the sudden disintegration of the vessel into a brush of branches passing into capillaries. If the branches, before passing into the capillaries, are collected again in one vessel, then they are called rete mirabile bipolare.
retina, ae f[only reminiscent of rete"network"] retina. It does not look like a network at all, but it is named so, probably because nervi visorii substantia dilatatur in Shit involucrum, i.e. "the substance of the optic nerve is stretched into a wide cover."
Salvatella, ae f[lat. salvo"save" (sc. vena)], vein variable in position
It starts on the back of the hand between the little finger and the ring finger or between the ring and middle fingers. Perhaps the name was obtained by a series of distortions of the term Avicenna al usailium -> alaseilem -> salasailem -> salvatella. There is another explanation: quia salvat, i.e. “because it saves”: bloodletting from this vein was considered very useful.
scalpellum, i n scalpel [lat. scalpo"cut out" (cf. scalp)] knife Knife for anatomical preparation.
scapula, ae f scapula. In classical Latin to refer to the back as opposed to the chest (pectus) used scapulae(plural). In the Middle Ages, the shoulder blade was called spathula [tr. spathe“a wide flat object; similar to a shovel". Hence the word putty knife. Some authors prefer the term omoplate(cf. French. omoplate), its part omo- is used in anatomical nomenclature as an element "scapular-", for example, omohyoideus"scapular-hyoid".
spina, ae f awn, point, thorn
At the time of equestrian competitions, the arena of the Roman circus was divided in the middle by a wall a meter high; boundary stones stood at its ends (metae) which should not have touched the turning chariots; this wall is called spina. The ridge also divides the dorsal surface of the body into two equal parts, which is why it was also called spina (dorsalis).
steps, edis m[lat. sto"I'm standing" + pes"leg, foot"] stirrup
The word is of later origin, since the Greeks and Romans did not use a saddle, but covered their horses with a saddlecloth, a blanket. Stirrups and saddles came into use only in the 4th century. Christian era (scala et sella equestres). term steps one of the auditory ossicles is designated by external similarity ( ossicula auditus) opened in the 16th century.
tabatière anatomique[French] tabatière anatomique] anatomical snuffbox
This is the name of the fossa formed when the thumb is abducted between the tendons of the long abductor muscle of the thumb with a short flexor, on the one hand, and its long extensor, on the other. Anatomists sniffing in the fashion of the XVIII-XIX centuries. tobacco, so as not to take it with dirty hands, poured tobacco into this hole. In Russian, the vein in this place was called falcon, but the place itself sokolok, for the hunters had a falcon here. To prevent the bird from damaging his hand with his claws, the falconer put on a leather mitten.
tendo calcaneus seu Achilles heel or Achilles tendon of the triceps muscle of the lower leg, attached to the heel process The mother of the Greek hero Achilles, the goddess Thetis, to make her son invulnerable, bathed him in the magical waters of the river Styx in the underworld. At the same time, she held him by the heel, which remained the only place in which defeat could kill Achilles. What happened at the walls of Troy, when the arrow of Paris hit the Achilles' heel.
theatrum anatomicum[gp. theathron"a place for spectacles"] anatomical theater
At the end of the Middle Ages, the dissection of corpses was carried out publicly. Honorary persons of the city and all comers were invited to them. They rang the bells, hung out special posters - it was as if a theatrical performance was arranged, from where the expression anatomical theatre.
thymus, i t thymus
The name arose due to some similarity in the shape of this gland in animals with thyme flowers. (thymos). This similarity was noticed when, during the sacrifice of animals, they were burned, sprinkled with thyme. There is another explanation - from gr. thymos"spirit, heart, feeling." The Russian name conveys the similarity in form.
thyreoidus[gr. thyra"door"] thyroid
The door of the house protects him, serving as a shield, and if necessary, it can really be used for protection as a shield. The large quadrangular Greek shield made of wood upholstered in leather was also borrowed by the Romans. The largest of the laryngeal cartilages is called the thyroid cartilage, since its lateral plates look like such a shield.
tonsilla, ae f[lat. tondeo“I cut, scratch”] tonsil. Wed amygdala This name is thought to reflect that the inflammation of these glands is accompanied by a scratching sensation in the pharynx. By the similarity of the form, the same word denotes the ovoid lobule of the cerebellar hemispheres (tonsilla cerebelli).
tympanum, i n[gp. tympanon"tympanum" (percussion musical instrument) from typto"beat, hit"] drum
Until the beginning of the XVI century. there was still no clear idea of either the inner or the middle ear; The tympanic membrane was considered the place of perception of auditory sensations. They also knew little about the cavity, which, together with the tympanic membrane, was called tympanum-"a similitudine cum tympano", that is, "by resemblance to a drum." Even after they learned that the tympanic cavity has an extremely irregular shape, not at all like a drum, the names cavum and membrane tympani preserved.
vestibulum i n[lat. vestis"clothes"] vestibule
In a Roman house, in front of the door to the inhabited rooms, there was a special room open to the street, where outer clothing (toga) was left. In anatomy, this word is used to refer to the initial anterior section of an organ or cavity: vestibulum bursae omentalis (laryngis, nasi, oris).
vibrissae, arum f[lat. vibro"I shake, I tremble"; vibrisso"make trills"] nose hair
In old anatomy textbooks, the etymology of the word was explained as follows: “ita dicti quod his evulsis, caput vibrator”, that is, “they are so called because when they are pulled out, the head trembles.” Possibly the title vibrissae was given first to a cat's whiskers and then transferred to a human.
vomer, eris t[lat. vomo"spewing"] coulter
The old Roman plow scattered the earth in both directions, as if spewing it up. The Greeks and Romans did not know this bone. It has long been considered an integral part of the ethmoid bone. When the lower part of the bony nasal septum (saeptum nasi osseum) was isolated as an independent bone, it was named after its resemblance to the plow share.
area, ae f[gp. zone"belt"] area
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The ancient Greeks treated dishes with trepidation. She was almost sacred to them. Each dish from the rich number of vessels produced at that time corresponded to the various preferences of the inhabitants of Ancient Greece. Below, 20 main types of vessels that were used everywhere on the territory of the then existing state will be given as an example.
1. Kilik. This type The vessel was made of both ceramic materials and metal. It was used mainly for drinking. The shape of the dishes is open, the appearance is a flat bowl on a leg. The leg is small, thin, sometimes elongated. Kiliks had two handles.
2. Crater. This vessel was produced with a wide neck. The crockery was big enough. Craters were used to mix varieties of ancient Greek strong wines and water. Like the kiliks, they had two handles located on the sides.
3. Hydria. Ceramics were required to produce this type of vessel. Sometimes it was possible to meet hydria made of metal. Such dishes in shape resembled a wide vessel with the same wide neck. Hydrias had two handles arranged horizontally (there were hydrias with one handle, but with a vertical arrangement). The handles of the hydria are located between the rim and shoulders. Some kind of painting was often applied to the surface of such a vessel. The hydria container was filled with a variety of drinks.
4. Psykter. This vessel gives out a high cylindrical leg. Due to this design, the psykter could easily be installed inside other dishes. Its container was filled with cold water or ice. The psykter was used as a kind of cooler for drinks.
5. Calpida. We can say that this is a kind of water jug. Often, the calpida became an urn, that is, a vessel inside which the ashes of the dead were preserved for a long time.
6. Oinohoya. The original shape of this jug, made with a spout, made it possible to fill the vessel with various liquids, mainly wine. Three spouts, provided near the neck, helped to fill the container of glasses and cups very quickly.
7. Amphora. This vessel is oval in shape. For the convenience of holding the dishes, she had two handles. Both wine and oil were stored in amphoras. By analogy with the calpida, they saved the ashes of the dead. The amphora was also used as a vessel for voting. Its volume is 26.3 liters, which allowed the ancient Greeks and Romans to measure the amount of liquid. The amphora was made of metals: bronze and silver, there were wood and glass.
8. Pelik. Vessel, the expansion of the form of which can be traced from top to bottom. Along the edges are two vertical handles. Small volumes of both loose and liquid substances were stored in pelikas.
9. Panathenaic amphora. As the name suggests, it was made in Athens. The first mention of this type of vessel dates back to 566 BC. These amphoras are black-figure, special, often decorated with stereotypical painting. Their container was filled with oil, after which the amphora was awarded to the winner of the Panathenaic competitions as a very valuable prize. By the way, this is where the custom of awarding athletes with cups came from.
10. Lutrofor. This type of ancient Greek vessel had a high body. Along with this, he had a narrow neck, however, very long. A wide whisk and two handles adorned the appearance of the lutrophor. The wedding ritual involved washing the bride with water taken from the dishes. At the same time, along with the death of the bride, the lutrophor was placed in the grave of the deceased. A little later, almost all graves were decorated with such a vessel.
11. Stamnos. It has a short neck with a very wide opening. Along the edges of the vessel were two horizontal handles. Wine was kept in stamnos.
12. Aryballos. A small vessel that helped gymnasts store oil in it. It was worn on a belt in a pouch. Also, the container of the aryball was used to fill it with perfume ointments.
13. Alabaster. It has an oblong shape with rounded ends at the bottom of the vessel. A flat neck and a special eye, which served as the basis for hanging dishes, become its main features. Alabaster was made from alabaster. The surface of the vessel was decorated with ornaments. Also, alabaster was made from fired clay, glass and metal. Like aryball, it can be used to contain aromatic ointments in them.
14. Pyxida. Round or oval container. Jewelry was kept inside. Also, the capacity of pixida made it possible to store all kinds of ointments and spices in it. It was made of wood and gold, or ivory.
15. Lekythos. They kept oil in it. As the appearance improved, the lekythos changed from a cone-shaped vessel to a cylinder-shaped vessel. There is a vertical handle on one side. Lekythos is notable for its narrow neck. It was used in the process of carrying out the funeral ritual.
16. Skyphos. Used for drinking. The shape is a bowl. There are two horizontal handles. Volume - 0.27 l. The ancient Greeks and Romans used the skyphos to measure the amount of liquid.
17. Kiaf. A kind of scoop, which has a long handle, which has a curved shape. The vessel is presented in the form of a bowl, it is installed on a flat surface due to the legs. Volume - 0.045 l. The ancient Greeks used it to measure the amount of liquid or bulk substance.
18. Kanfar. It has two arms and one tall leg. The shape of the vessel is a goblet. Used for drinking. The ancient Greeks considered kantharos to be an attribute of the god Dionysus.
19. Riton. It was made of ceramic materials or metal. The shape is funnel-shaped, the neck is outlined, there is a handle. Quite often rhyton was made in the form of the head of an animal, a bird or a person.
20. Dinos. Wine was mixed in this vessel. A kind of large jug. In addition, it was decorated together with a skillfully made stand.
The article is based on the material "Ancient archeology", author I.T.Kruglikova.
