Electronic cartography and cartographic systems. Requirements for electronic charting systems Routes for ship electronic charts
Modern technical means make it possible to determine the location of the vessel and automatically calculate coordinates with high accuracy (up to tens or hundreds of meters), updating the current coordinates of the vessel almost continuously (with discreteness of up to several seconds). However, traditional methods of “manual” processing of navigation information do not allow fully realizing the capabilities of technical means because graphical plotting of observations on a marine navigation chart not only causes a significant delay in information, but also inevitably reduces the accuracy of the data obtained due to plotting errors. The need to provide continuous and objective monitoring of the location and movement of the vessel and observed targets, to automate measurements and their processing, to provide the navigator with visual and reliable information in a form suitable for immediate use, ultimately led to the development and use of electronic charts.
Currently, integrated navigation systems are becoming increasingly widespread in navigation, the main component of which is the electronic chart navigation information system (ECDIS) or ECDIS (Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems). In these systems, navigation maps are displayed on the ECDIS display screen and operations are performed on them to ensure navigation safety in various conditions, plan the judge’s path and conduct executive navigation.
ECDIS has a very high level of integration with the ability to connect various information sensors:
Positioning systems,
Radar-ARPA, transponder,
Information about the operation of the propulsion system,
Alarm and control systems, etc.
Integrated automated navigation system- a system characterized by the integrated use of technical navigation equipment to display the location and parameters of the vessel’s movement, the surrounding environment against the background of an electronic navigation map, and also intended for the automated solution of basic navigation tasks.
The main component of such a system - electronic cartographic navigation information system - ECDIS (ECDIS)- a navigation system that meets the relevant standard and combines information from technical aids of navigation (TSN) and other systems (radar, ARPA, AIS) to display navigation parameters of the location and movement of the vessel, navigation-hydrographic, hydrometeorological and other conditions on an electronic navigation map, as well as designed for automated solution of basic navigation tasks.
ECS (Electronic Chart System) - Electronic mapping system - a system interfaced with navigation information sensors (gyrocompass, log, GPS PI). The ECS system does not allow for work without a paper card.
Electronic navigation map (ENC or ENC)- a database standardized in content, structure and format, created for use in ECDIS and containing all the cartographic information necessary for safe navigation and additional information related to navigation.
System electronic navigation map(SENC or SENC) a database obtained by transforming (converting) the ENC into the internal ECDIS format for the purpose of ease of use by the system and accounting for corrections, as well as the use with its help of other information added by the navigator. SENC is used in ECDIS to generate an electronic map image on the screen and automatically solve navigation problems. It may include information from other sources.
Format – a certain sequence and type of presentation of information on a medium. The main format for presenting cartographic information is currently the DX9 format, intended for encoding - decoding and exchange of digital cartographic data between the hydrographic services of the IHO member countries and for transmitting data to ECDIS manufacturers. Due to certain inconveniences of working in this format inside electronic cartographic navigation systems when performing operations with ENC, ECDIS manufacturers create their own in-system formats for SENC, most relevant to the tasks solved by a specific ECDIS.
Electronic card (EC) - display of the map on the ECDIS screen in the appropriate standard, obtained from the information contained in the system electronic map. Such display must be the equivalent of an updated navigational chart meeting the requirements of Chapter V of the SOLAS-74 Convention as amended 1995.
Special database- a database stored separately from the SENC, the information of which is displayed on the ECDIS screen at the request of the operator or under certain circumstances.
EC can be displayed on the ECDIS screen both in the scale to which its data in the CBD corresponds, and in other scales.
Electronic navigation chart scale– compilation scale of the ENC, i.e. scale encrypted in the ENC and established by the manufacturing organization, while the cartographic information meets the requirements of the IHO standard for the accuracy of the original map.
In a simplified form, this can be explained as follows. If we imagine an electronic navigation map in the form of a file of a strictly defined size, then in one case this file can contain information about a vast area of the world's oceans. Obviously, this information will not contain detailed information about the area and corresponds to a small scale map. In another case, information about a smaller area can be placed in a file of the same size. Now this information will be more detailed i.e. corresponding to a larger scale.
CI display scale- the relationship between the distance on the ECDIS screen and the true distance, normalized and expressed in conditional form. We can say that this scale is similar to the concept of the scale of a paper map. If the display scale is larger than the ENC scale, this is called overscaling; if smaller, it is called underscaling. In both cases, the ECDIS issues a corresponding warning.
Let us remind you that the card load is the total number of symbols and other information contained on the card.
For ECDIS, the standard defines the following levels of information presentation on the screen and the content of these levels (display information load).
Base- the volume of data displayed by the electronic map, which under no circumstances can be reduced by the navigator-operator. This amount of data is displayed on the ECDIS screen constantly in any navigation area, but is not considered sufficient to ensure navigational safety of navigation.
Coastline (for high water);
Safe contour line for own vessel, selected by the boatmaster;
Individual underwater hazards with depths less than safe, within the area limited by the safe isobath;
Individual hazards that lie within the area bounded by the safe contour.
data on the displayed map - its scale, type of map orientation and display mode; units of depths and heights;
Standard- information displayed when the electronic map is called up for the first time on the screen. The standard load consists of information:
Base load;
Drying (drying) lines;
Fixed and floating means of navigational fencing;
Borders of fairways, channels, etc.; visual and radar noticeable objects;
Prohibited and restricted navigation areas;
Borders for cutting marine navigation charts;
Warnings for mariners;
At the request of the navigator-operator, the amount of standard load information used to perform preliminary and executive laying can be changed.
Full- all possible information displayed on the electronic map, called up at the operator’s request and including:
Standard load, depth values;
Submarine cables and pipelines;
Ferry routes;
Details of all individual hazards;
Details of aids to navigation;
Elements of the geodetic basis of the map;
Magnetic declination;
Geographical names, etc.
Currently, there are practically no ships equipped with ECDIS that fully meet the requirements, but there are many ships with similar systems on board that do not fully meet the requirements. These are the ECS systems. Such systems are subject to international requirements and their own national requirements of maritime administrations.
“Technical and operational requirements for cartographic systems” (TET) have been introduced in Russia. They are developed in accordance with the “Rules for Conventional Equipment of Sea Vessels” of the Register and the “General Requirements for Electronic Navigation Equipment” contained in IMO Resolution A.694(17). The requirements require that the system be tested for all operational and display parameters before installation on vessels.
1.11.1.6 List of basic requirements:
1. Power off.
The system must provide for restoration of operation with preservation of all previously contained information when the main power supply to the system is turned off for no more than 45 seconds.
2. Information display:
a) the ability to delete information from the screen,
b) map scales should be from 1:10,000 to 1:50,000,000 with the ability to switch from one to another,
c) a list of swimming data displayed on the screen,
d) the possibility of orientation to the north,
e) ECS must have at least 2 sets of colors (day and night).
3. Proofreading.
The date of the last revision must be indicated. Apply automatically and manually, color orange.
4. Alerts and warnings.
a) information about the discrepancy between the image scale and the database scale,
b) about operating modes - navigation and planning,
c) alarm signals:
PI malfunction,
Limit of deviation from course, track,
Specified distance to the turning point,
The specified distance to the dangerous area,
5. Additional information on the screen:
a) coincidence of the scales and orientation of the radar and ENC,
b) radar information, including information about targets, can be displayed and hidden on the map screen.
6. Display requirements:
a) the height of letters and numbers must be at least 2 mm,
b) the size of the symbols should remain unchanged when changing the scale,
c) the diagonal of the image must be at least 300 mm with a resolution of 640 x 480
pixels.
7. Operating modes.
a) there should be 2 modes: navigation and planning,
b) at least 10 routes of 100 points each must be stored in memory,
c) coordination data is displayed on the screen every 5 seconds with a delay of no more than 2 seconds,
d) information about 30 minutes of swimming or 6 miles traveled should remain in memory. The trajectory should remain on the screen displaying 1 point per 30 seconds or after 0.1 mile,
e) location data is archived at intervals not exceeding 60 minutes.
8.Calculation accuracy:
a) distances - the highest of:
1 meter for distances up to 1000 meters or
D/1,000 at distances greater than 1,000 meters,
b) bearing - 0.1°,
c) accuracy of removal from a paper card for application to an electronic one:
Linear objects (coasts, isobaths) - 1 mm,
Point objects (buoys, beacons) - 0.5 mm.
9. The screen rebuild time should not exceed 5 seconds.
Requirements for the operation of ship electronics
Changes ch. V of the SOLAS-74 Convention naturally makes changes to the requirements for inspections of ships by the Port State Control and Flag State Control services.
Conventional ECDIS equipment should be checked in a similar manner to inspections of other conventional equipment. Based on the fact that it is used to display electronic maps, which can replace paper ones, the inspection requirements include this component. As you know, checking any maps is determined not only by checking their availability, but also by checking the date and quality of the proof, its design, storage statistics, layout design and transition work.
The main guiding document is “Port State Control Committee instruction 35/2002/02. Guidelines for PSCOs on electronic chart”, which sets out the main requirements for inspections.
The formalized relationship between the navigator, the shipowner and the service department when working with paper charts is clear to everyone. For the maintenance of electronic mapping systems, many questions remain open and require the preparation of a more specific regulatory framework. Taking into account the developments in this area, it is necessary to provide for periodic adjustments to the developed requirements. Similar dynamics are observed in the development of similar coastal systems. Based on this, the problems of service support become more relevant. Similar questions may arise during inspections of non-conventional equipment, i.e. RCDS and ECS, which is also effectively used on board to address navigation safety issues.
Let's consider the list of requirements that can be presented to the watch assistant responsible for the operation of the electronic mapping system. Regardless of which electronic charting system is on board the vessel, the navigator must know the basics of its operation and the requirements for modern preventive maintenance to maintain the system in working order.
It focuses on minimal knowledge on the following issues of providing corrective information to electronic navigation charts and additional databases.
1. What type of electronic charting system is on board the vessel (RCDS, ECS, ECDIS)?
2. Status of the mapping system (conventional or additional equipment).
3. Availability of documentation for the cartographic system.
4. Ship documentation for maintenance records, availability of user manuals on board.
5. Availability of an agreement with official distributors for updating and adding a collection of electronic cards.
6. Availability of an agreement with a company providing service.
7. Availability of a backup set of equipment, solution of technical issues of interfacing the main and backup sets of equipment on the ship (only for ECDIS equipment).
8. Crew members have certificates for working with the cartographic system.
9. Electronic maps available in the cartographic system database, status of maps (official or not).
10. Additional electronic databases (driving directions, manuals, tables, etc.) available in the cartographic system, status of the databases (official or not).
11. Method of delivery of electronic charts and additional electronic databases to the ship.
12. Method of delivery to the ship of proofs for electronic charts and for additional electronic databases.
13. Possibility of converting electronic map data into SENC using a mapping system.
14. Determination of the date of the last update of electronic maps for the requested area.
15. Availability of knowledge and skills in correcting electronic charts of ship collections in manual and semi-automatic mode.
16. General understanding of the structure of WEND and RENC.
17. Addresses of RENC official representatives for the proposed navigation area.
18. Principles of the electronic cell coding system adopted in the world and in Russia.
19. View and analyze ENC cell data (ECDIS equipment only) and accepted correction information.
20. Availability on board of additional programs to resolve service support issues and provide corrective information, knowledge of how to work with them.
21. Basic provisions of the “ENC Correction Guide” of the S-52 standard and IMO resolution A.817(19) (for ECDIS equipment only).
When using navigators With traditional paper maps, the time required to take coordinates from the display of the receiver indicator (PI) and plot them on a map that is not accurate enough leads to the fact that the observation is not current, and additional errors are introduced into it.
In addition, when sailing in cramped conditions, there is simply no time to plot the ship’s coordinates on the map. In this case, it is necessary to display the vessel's position in real time, which is possible when using a navigation chart on an electronic display (electronic chart). The last decade of the 20th century is characterized by the development of marine electronic cartography. By now, this new direction in navigation technology has become a reality. Electronic cartography allows you to radically improve the organization of the work of navigators and make it easier, reducing the navigation accident rate.
It can be argued that a technical revolution in navigation is taking place before our eyes. The need to ensure continuous and objective monitoring of the location and movement of the vessel and observed targets, to automate measurements and their processing, to present visual and reliable information in a form suitable for immediate use, led to the development and use of automatic radar plotting (ARP) systems in radar, and V radio navigation- automatic receiver indicators of satellite radio navigation systems and complex indicators of the navigation situation with electronic maps.
Elements of electronic cartography first began to be used in ship automatic radar plotting systems and in coastal ship traffic control systems. Such maps are called simplified or stylized. Electronic cards of the new generation are created in special centers licensed by the national hydrographic administration and responsible for the completeness and correctness of display of the navigation situation. Cartographic databases, also used in the preparation of conventional paper maps, are converted into digital form, recorded on magnetic disks or other types of media, and then displayed on the ship’s display screen (video plotter) with high resolution.
The history of the creation of electronic maps has the following chronology:
In 1982, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) published a draft standard defining the characteristics of ECDIS (Electronic Chart Display and Information System). There is also an International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) standard that sets out the requirements for ECDIS.
In 1987, an IMO/IHO coordination group was approved to develop technical and operational requirements for a ship's electronic chart and information display system. It was understood that if these requirements were met, ECDIS would be recognized as the legal equivalent of paper maps.
Electronic card must display the following minimum cartographic data: coastline contour, depths and heights, safe depth boundaries, underwater obstacles, fixed and floating navigation aids, sea routes (fairways, channels, recommended courses, traffic separation systems), prohibited and restricted navigation areas, numerical and linear scales of the displayed map, values of the coordinates limiting the map and at least one intermediate line indicating the parallel and meridian. In addition, at the request of the navigator, other cartographic data from the list defined by the IMO operational requirements for ECDIS can be displayed on the screen, for example, reference data on coastal and floating navigational aids, navigation rules, various navigational warnings, ferry routes, underwater cable routes and pipelines, geodetic information (geodetic basis, date of creation and date of last update of the electronic map), etc.
If ECDIS is interfaced with ARPA, then on the video plotter screen you can observe the movement of other vessels with the corresponding vectors of their movements. The ECDIS screen displays the own ship mark in real time, moving in accordance with the data received from the GPS. The electronic chart reproduces a nautical navigational chart of the Mercator projection with a “North” orientation and “True Motion” stabilization, that is, the vessel symbol moves along a stationary electronic chart. The displayed map section is changed to an adjacent section automatically (if necessary, manually) when the ship approaches a certain distance to the edge of the map.
The video presenter must be able to display electronic maps to scale, adequate to the scale of standard marine navigation charts. It is possible to change the scale at least twice, both upward and downward. It must be borne in mind that increasing the scale only means enlarging the image of the map area, but this increase is not accompanied by greater detail of the coastline or terrain. ECDIS has the ability to record data about the movement of a vessel over a certain period of time (for example, within 36 hours), that is, to keep a “ship log”. The design of the cartographic data carrier must prevent its erasure or modification under ship conditions. At the same time, it should be possible to correct electronic charts on the ship both automatically using satellite communication systems and manually by entering additional symbols by the navigator. As corrections accumulate, users can periodically, for example, quarterly, receive a fully updated version of the electronic map. Working with the electronic catalog, the navigator can select electronic charts of all necessary scales for the upcoming passage. On these maps, preliminary electronic routing of the route for the upcoming transition is performed. Waypoints can be plotted either by geographic coordinates or using a special marker based on bearing and distance relative to the selected navigation landmark. Pre-laying lines are highlighted on the screen in a special color. The navigation map can be “raised”, for which dots, solid and broken lines, symbols, numbers and letters can be placed anywhere on the screen. Taking into account the characteristics of the navigation area and the characteristics of the vessel, permissible values of deviations of the vessel from a given track line, acceptable values of minimum approach distances with identified navigation hazards, as well as warning alarm activation distances when approaching turning points can be entered into ECDIS.
For the vessel's current position, ECDIS shall calculate and display in alphanumeric form the following current navigational information:
Date and time (Greenwich Mean Time or Standard Time);
Geographical coordinates of the vessel with a designation of the method for determining them;
Lateral deviation of a vessel from a given track line (CTE - cross track error) indicating the side (sign) of deviation
Distance and bearing to the next waypoint (DIST TO WP, BRG TO WP) and sailing time to it (TIME TO WP);
Geographic coordinates of the marker (“+”), which the navigator can set at any point on the screen;
Bearing to the marker and distance to it (COURSOR IIG. COURSOR RNG).
By observing the movement of the own ship's mark on the ECDIS screen, the navigator can guide the ship along a given track by eye, also taking into account objective digital information. In the presence of a reliable and high-precision system for determining the position of a vessel, ECDIS becomes the most important technical means of navigation not only in coastal waters, but also in narrow waters, as it provides instant control over the location and movement of the vessel, forecasting the development of the navigation situation, operational planning and control of maneuvers, and error-free identification navigational landmarks.
Requirements for electronic charts were developed in 1995 by the 19th IMO Assembly and formalized by Resolution A. 817(19), then the marine electronic chart standard No. 1174 was developed and the development of national standards began. The IMO requirements for ECDIS noted that the primary function of the system is to ensure the safety of navigation. The system must display all chart information necessary for safe and efficient navigation. Such information must be officially prepared and disseminated by hydrographic services authorized by national governments. ECDIS must ensure the reliability and availability of navigation information, provide for appropriate backup and documentation of voyage data. Such systems have been considered as the legal equivalent of paper navigation charts since 2001. At the same time, the navigator must realistically evaluate and take into account the technical limitations of ECDIS, including reference to geographic coordinates rather than to the coast, dependence on the accuracy of navigation sensors and limitations of the navigation navigation systems used, the danger of using an unacceptable scale of electronic map, possible incompleteness of navigation information on this map, etc. Even a short-term malfunction or failure of ECDIS can lead to a complete loss of control over the situation and one’s position and, as a consequence, to a navigation accident.
There is also a problem related to the coordinate system. The international standards for ECDIS specify that the cartographic information used must be in the American WGS-84 coordinate system. This system also includes GPS (NAVSTAR SRNS). However, the Russian GLONASS SRNS has its own geodetic base PZ-90, and domestic paper maps are created using the Krasovsky reference ellipsoid (sometimes called “Pulkovo-42”). Despite these limitations and difficulties, modern ships are already equipped with two ECDIS displays, each of which has an independent power supply. In this case, the displays are connected to the main technical means of navigation - a gyrocompass, a log, and a GPS receiver and indicator. In this case, the electronic map turns into an automated navigation complex that allows you to solve various navigation problems.
It is clear that such a complex should be used in conjunction with other technical means of navigation, in particular, with a ship's radar and echo sounder. It is possible to use electronic charts on yachts. An example is the circumnavigation of the yacht “Apostol Andrey” under the command of Honored Master of Sports of the Russian Federation N.A. Litau in 1996-1999 (the yacht circumnavigated the globe, following all four oceans, passing for the first time in history along the Northern Sea Route in a westerly direction), only electronic maps were used on the yacht, for which two displays were installed. There is no doubt that over time ECDIS will completely replace paper maps and will be just as mandatory navigation aid, like now gyroscopic and magnetic compasses, a log or a ship's radar station.
Computers have revolutionized cartography by making it easier to collect and display the full range of data needed to create a map. Information on geomorphology and terrain obtained from surface and satellite surveys can be expressed in numbers and entered into a computer for further use in mapping.
Likewise, existing maps can be scanned and expressed digitally as computer data. Cartographic databases may also include information about cities, roads and railways, flora and human economic activities in a given territory. Since all the information is stored digitally in the computer, it can be reorganized in various ways depending on the purpose of the card. For example, a map of a city's water supply and waste pipes can be used to analyze the operation of the sewer network and develop measures to eliminate water leaks. Such a map may also include a diagram of gas pipes, electrical networks and all underground communications. When a city builds new networks, the computer map can be easily changed without the need for new drawings.
Three-dimensional data can be input into a Stereo Digital Programming Station (SDPS) using parallax or visual offsets on overhead photographs taken with different cameras.
The data is converted into numbers either by moving a mouse over the map or by drawing a structure and entering coordinates for each map element.
Computer cartography
Map data from various sources can be presented in the form of numbers and stored in computer memory. The data can then be processed to create maps for various purposes.
Cartographic database. Divided into Database Layers, Road Data, Construction Data, Pipe Data, etc. Various types of cartographic information can be collected and recorded in separate layers of a computer database. If necessary, information can be extracted individually or in combination.
Workstation for cartographic information system.
Urban planning can be improved by a map containing essential information about houses and buildings, as shown in a map of a Japanese city.
Construction plans can rely on maps containing information about pipes and other underground networks so builders know where they can and cannot dig.
From maps to graphics
The data used to compile the map can be used to create computer graphics that map the area. This computer ability clearly demonstrates the versatility of computer cartography.
Abstract on the topic
Geographic information systems: electronic cartography
Introduction
1.What is electronic mapping
2.GIS models
3. Problems to be solved
4. Who needs GIS
5. Brief overview of GIS development tools
6. Some Ukrainian developments
Literature
Introduction
Information about real objects and events to one degree or another contains the so-called spatial component. The spatial aspect has buildings and structures, land plots, water, forest and other natural resources, transport routes and utilities. It has long been proven that 80-90% of all data consists of geodata, i.e. not just abstract, impersonal data, but information that has its own specific place on the map, diagram or plan.
Each of us has worked with a paper map at least once in our lives. With the advent of computers, computer cards appeared, which have many additional and useful properties.
1. What is electronic mapping
Unlike a paper map, an electronic map contains hidden information that can be used as needed. This information is presented in the form of layers, which are called thematic, because each layer consists of data on a specific topic (Fig. 1). For example, one layer of an electronic map may contain information about roads, the second - about the living population, the third - about companies and organizations, etc. Each layer can be viewed separately, combine several layers at once, or select individual information from different layers and display it to the map.
The electronic map can be easily scaled on a computer screen, moved in different directions, drawn and deleted objects, and printed on any territory. In addition, a computer card has other properties. For example, you can prohibit (or allow) certain objects to be displayed on the screen. By selecting an object with the mouse, you can request information about it, for example, the height and area of the house, street names, etc.
It was with the advent of electronic maps that another term “geographic information systems” (GIS) appeared. There are dozens of definitions of geographic information systems (they are also called geographic information systems). But most experts are inclined to believe that the definition of GIS should be based on the concept of a DBMS. Therefore, we can say that GIS are database management systems designed to work with territorially oriented information.
Rice. 1. Most modern GIS applications are based on information layers.
The most important feature of a GIS is the ability to associate cartographic objects (that is, objects that have a shape and location) with descriptive, attribute information related to these objects and describing their properties (Fig. 2).
As noted above, the basis for constructing a GIS is a DBMS. However, due to the fact that spatial data and the various relationships between them are quite difficult to describe with a relational model, the complete data model in GIS is of a mixed nature. Spatial data is organized in a special way, and this organization is not based on a relational concept. On the contrary, attribute information of objects (semantic data) can quite successfully be represented by relational tables and processed accordingly.
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Rice. 2. In electronic maps, even an ordinary point can be accompanied by a collection of photographs that give an idea of \u200b\u200bthis area
Combining the data models that underlie the representation of spatial and semantic information in a GIS forms a georelational model.
Any geographic information contains information about spatial location, be it reference to geographic or other coordinates or links to an address, postal code, identifier of a land or forest plot, road name, etc. (Fig. 3). When using such links, a geocoding procedure is used to automatically determine the location of an object. With its help, you can quickly determine and see on the map where the object you are interested in is located.
More promising is a layerless object-oriented approach to representing objects on a digital map. In accordance with it, objects are included in classification systems that reflect certain logical relationships between objects in subject areas. Grouping objects of different classes for different purposes (display or analysis) is done in a more complex way, however, the object-oriented approach is closer to the nature of human thinking than the layer-by-layer principle.
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Rice. 3. Modern GIS applications can make the necessary calculations of cargo transportation
2.GIS models
Since GIS can work with two significantly different types of data - vector and raster, there are two GIS models.
In a vector model, encoded information about points, lines, and polygons is stored as a set of X, Y coordinates (in some GIS, a third spatial coordinate and a fourth, for example, a temporal coordinate are often added). The location of a point (point object), for example, a building, is described by a pair of coordinates (X, Y). Linear features, such as roads or rivers, are stored as sets of X, Y coordinates. Polygon features, such as parcels or service areas, are stored as a closed set of coordinates. The vector model is especially useful for describing discrete objects and is less suitable for describing continuously changing properties such as population density.
The raster model is optimal for working with continuous properties, since a raster image is a set of values for individual elementary components (cells), it is similar to a scanned map or picture.
3. Problems to be solved
A general purpose GIS typically performs several tasks:
Data entry;
Manipulating and managing them;
Information request and its analysis;
Data visualization.
To be used in a GIS, data must be converted into a suitable digital format. The process of converting data from paper maps into computer files is called digitization. In modern GIS, this process can be automated using scanner technology, which is especially important when carrying out large projects, or for a relatively small amount of work, data can be entered using a digitizer. Some GIS have built-in vectorizers that automate the process of digitizing raster images. Often, existing map data needs to be modified to complete a specific project. For joint processing and visualization, it is more convenient to present all data on a single scale and the same map projection. GIS technology provides different ways to manipulate spatial data and extract the data needed for a specific task. In small projects, geographic information may be stored as regular files. But with an increase in the volume of information and an increase in the number of users, it is more effective to use a DBMS, special computer tools for working with integrated data sets, for storing, structuring and managing data. If you have GIS and geographic information, you can get answers to both simple questions and more complex queries that require additional analysis. Queries can be set either by simply clicking a mouse button on a specific object or through advanced analytical tools. The process of overlay (spatial fusion) involves the integration of data located in different thematic layers. For many types of spatial operations, the end result is a representation of the data in the form of a map or graph. GIS provides amazing new tools that expand and advance the art and science of cartography. With its help, the visualization of the maps themselves can be easily supplemented with reporting documents, three-dimensional images, graphs, tables, diagrams, photographs and other means, for example, multimedia.
4. Who needs GIS
1. For entrepreneurs.
Business people can use GIS in different areas of their business to analyze and track the current status and trends of the market area of interest to them.
2. Business managers.
With the ability of GIS to link process flow diagram objects to anything at the click of a mouse button, efficient process control is achieved, accident prevention is minimized, operations are increased, reliability is increased, and personnel requirements are reduced.
3. Oil and gas workers.
4. Security services.
GIS will allow you to determine the optimal location of surveillance cameras and other devices, issue their messages in real time, and print reports at a given time.
5. Transport services.
Thanks to GIS, at any time you can find out where the trucks are, the condition of the road surface, information about traffic jams, more effectively calculate the traffic load and optimize the route.
6. Firefighters.
Fire brigades receive a powerful tool for coordinating the actions of individual units, covering and monitoring a larger area, calculating the direction of the fire and predicting the speed of its spread.
