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Professional ethics refers to normative ethics. Professional ethics for representatives of different professions. History of professional ethics

In modern conditions, when market relations are being formed, civil society and the rule of law are developing, the growth of free self-regulating principles in labor, the strengthening of moral factors in the system of its incentives, the humanization of various spheres of labor leads to a constant expansion of the range of professions that claim to form their own moral codes.

In addition to the traditionally known - medical, pedagogical and legal, along with diplomatic and military ethics, administrative and deputy ethics, police and sports ethics, the ethics of a scientist and journalist, engineer and service sector worker are decisively asserting themselves. The question arises: does any profession require specific professional ethics? modern society, all aspects of public life depends on the level of general educational and professional training, general culture, and moral qualities of workers - active and thoughtful participants in IP. Toric works.

Every profession has its own morality. A profession develops in its holders not only professional skills, but also certain personality traits and attitudes towards the content of their activities.

The emergence of professional ethics precedes the creation of scientific theories about it, since professional ethics arises as a primary phenomenon of everyday consciousness and subsequently develops on the basis of comprehension and generalization of the practice of representatives of a professional group. These generalizations are systematized in the form of codes (written and unwritten), containing not only ethical requirements for the content and results of activities, but also in the relationships that arise in the process of activity, as well as conclusions drawn on the basis of generalizations. Thus, professional ethics is not only the science of professional morality, but also the ethical self-awareness of the total professional group, its ideologies

Professional ethics, like ethics in general, are not developed, but are developed gradually in the process of everyday joint activities of people. Professional ethics systematizes the experience accumulated in the process of historical practice, characteristic of a certain type of activity, generalizes it and improves it as this type of activity improves. Therefore, professional ethics can be considered as a type of general morality, which has specific features determined by the type and type of activity - that is, an applied scientific discipline that studies professional morality; while it can be considered as an applied theory of morality, it operates in the professional community.

Professional activity, the object of which is living people, forms a complex system of mutually reciprocal, interdependent moral relations. This system primarily includes:

a) the attitude of specialists to the object of labor (investigator - accused, account

ar - patient, teacher - student);

b) the relationship of the specialist with colleagues;

c) the specialist’s attitude towards society

These relationships are studied by professional ethics (Figure 14)

Fig. 14 objects of study of professional ethics

It arises in connection with the social division of labor, which gave rise to the separation of socio-professional groups. With their education, a need arose to regulate relations between professionals and professionals with clients. At first it was a small circle of professions, which, in the process of further specialization of labor, became increasingly differentiated, as a result of which more and more new professions arose, depending on specific historical conditions, one or another sphere of professional activity prevailed. Society's attitude towards it determines its value.

In professional ethics, a system of specific moral norms with accompanying practical rules is formed that “serve” one or another area of human activity. In each of these areas, the main object of activity is a person who has the right to hope to be treated not as an object of external influence, but as a person, that is, he expects respect and understanding.

Professional ethics arises with the development of each profession. It is also related to aspects of morality, but covers a certain range of issues, which is limited by the ethics of behavior of workers in a particular profession. In general, norms of behavior are adjusted in accordance with practice and serve as a normative character.

Professional ethics defines the rules of moral choice that workers face, and also specifies methods for forming specific moral judgments in specific situations.

Professional ethics are determined by the characteristics of certain professions, corporate interests, and professional culture. People who perform the same or similar professional functions develop specific traditions, unite on the basis of professional solidarity, and maintain the reputation of their social group.

The moral assessment of a profession by society is determined by two factors:

firstly, by what this profession objectively provides for social development;

secondly, by what it gives to a person subjectively, namely in terms of the moral impact on it

Any profession, since it exists, performs a certain social function. Representatives of this profession have their own social purpose, their own goals. This or that profession determines the choice of a specific communication environment, which leaves an imprint on people regardless of whether they want it or not. Within each professional group, certain specific connections and relationships develop between people.

. Professional ethics - This is primarily a specific ethical code of people of a certain profession. Each profession places corresponding moral demands on the people who choose it and gives rise to special moral problems. However, some professions do not require significant adjustments to the usual norms and rules of human behavior, while others persistently require this. We are talking primarily about types of activities in which the object of influence is a person (education, medicine, jurisprudence). However, relations between people of professions of other categories also significantly depend on their moral relations. Many types of activities place increased moral demands on people.

Professional morality specifies the general moral norms and assessments that determine a person’s attitude to his professional duties, and indirectly - to the people with whom he interacts according to his profession and to society as a whole; its content is, first of all, the corresponding moral codes - sets of moral rules and regulations that must be followed. They attribute a certain type of relationship between people that is considered optimal from the point of view of a person fulfilling his professional duties.

Each profession has its own moral “temptations”, moral “valor” and “losses”, certain contradictions and conflicts arise, and unique ways of solving them are developed. A person will be drawn into professional activity to interact with the subjective world of feelings, experiences, aspirations, image, and morals. Evaluatek.

Among the various situations in professional relations, the most typical ones begin to stand out, which characterize the relative independence of professions and its specific moral atmosphere. And this, in turn, defines the specificity of people’s actions, the uniqueness of the moral norms of their behavior.

So, as soon as professional relations acquired qualitative stability, this led to the formation of special moral attitudes corresponding to the nature and content of work, reflecting the practical expediency of relations in them both between members of the professional group and the group itself in society.

Moral and professional norms have historically developed from the concrete to the abstract. At first, their meaning was too specific and associated with certain actions or objects. And only in the course of continued historical development, their semantic content acquires a general, actually moral meaning.

Each era has its own set of produced moral and professional norms, which become a certain spiritual reality. Moral and professional norms can live their own life and become an object of comprehension, study, analysis and assimilation; they become a force and guide the behavior of a representative of a particular profession. The specification of general moral principles and norms of such relations in accordance with the special aspects of a particular type of professional activity is “professional” morality.

Professional ethics is one of the branches of ethical science. However, in everyday life we use this concept in the sense of a certain “code of morality” - a set of rules that guide representatives of certain professions. What exactly are professional ethics?

According to one definition, professional ethics is a set of rules of conduct for a certain social group, ensuring the moral nature of relationships conditioned or associated with professional activities.

Most often, the need to comply with professional ethics is faced by people employed in the service sector, medicine, education - in a word, wherever daily work involves direct contact with other people and where increased moral requirements are imposed.

Professional ethics arose on the basis of similar interests and cultural requirements of people united by one profession. Traditions of professional ethics develop along with the development of the profession itself, and currently the principles and norms of professional ethics can be enshrined at the legislative level or expressed through generally accepted moral norms.

The concept of professional ethics is associated, first of all, with the characteristics of a particular profession in relation to which this term is used. So, for example, the “Hippocratic Oath” and medical confidentiality are some of the elements of the professional ethics of doctors, and the impartial presentation of true facts is an element of the professional ethics of journalists.

Features of professional ethics

In any profession, honest and responsible performance of one’s duties is one of the most important rules of professional ethics. However, some features of professional ethics may be missed by a novice specialist through ignorance or inattention - then such an employee may be declared unfit to perform his duties.

To prevent this from happening, you should remember basic norms and principles of professional ethics:

your work should be performed professionally, strictly in accordance with the assigned powers;
in your work you cannot be guided by your personal likes and dislikes; you should always maintain objectivity;
When working with personal data of clients or other individuals or companies, the strictest confidentiality should always be observed;
in your work, you must not allow the emergence of off-duty relationships with clients or colleagues, managers or subordinates;
you should observe the principle of collegiality and not discuss your colleagues or subordinates in the presence of clients, partners or other persons;
It is impossible to allow an already accepted order to be disrupted by refusing it in favor of another (more profitable) order;
Discrimination against clients, partners, colleagues or subordinates based on gender, race, age or any other basis is unacceptable.

Currently, professional standards are developing and improving, and social relations are changing. And in this new picture of the world, the ability to respect nature and the people around us is more important than ever - the main advantage of the professional ethics of representatives of any profession.

According to one definition, professional ethics is a set of rules of conduct for a certain social group that ensures the moral nature of relationships conditioned or associated with professional activities.

Features of professional ethics

To prevent this from happening, you should remember the basic norms and principles of professional ethics:

Your work should be performed professionally, strictly in accordance with the assigned powers;
in your work you cannot be guided by your personal likes and dislikes; you should always maintain objectivity;
When working with personal data of clients or other individuals or companies, the strictest confidentiality should always be observed;
in your work, you must not allow the emergence of off-duty relationships with clients or colleagues, managers or subordinates;
you should observe the principle of collegiality and not discuss your colleagues or subordinates in the presence of clients, partners or other persons;
It is impossible to allow an already accepted order to be disrupted by refusing it in favor of another (more profitable) order;
Discrimination against clients, partners, colleagues or subordinates on the basis of gender, race, age or any other basis is unacceptable.

Currently, professional standards are developing and improving, and social relations are changing. And in this new picture of the world, the ability to respect nature and the people around us is more important than ever – the main advantage of the professional ethics of representatives of any profession.

Code of Professional Ethics

The standards to which members of professions must adhere are defined in their codes of professional ethics. Codes of professional ethics are intended to govern the professional activities of all members of the profession, whether self-employed or employed.

It is believed that codes of professional ethics should formulate strict standards of conduct for members of professions. However, in fact, these codes are designed to solve a variety of problems. Some codes are simply used to demonstrate that such and such a group is a profession. Some codes proclaim a set of ideals (often unattainable) to which members of the profession should strive to achieve and by which they should guide their practice.

Other codes or sections thereof are disciplinary in nature, defining the minimum conditions that a member of the profession must comply with. If a member of the profession does not comply with this minimum, he is subject to penalties, the most serious of which is exclusion from the profession. There are codes that formulate the etiquette of this profession. There are unified codes that include a set of ideals, a list of disciplinary rules, and standards of professional conduct.

If a professional code is intended to provide the basis for a given profession to claim autonomy from the lay public scrutiny (e.g. doctors and lawyers) to which other groups are subject, such a code should have the following properties:

1. The code must be regulatory and purposeful. The inclusion of ideals in it is not prohibited. But it should precisely define which of its provisions represent ideals and which are of a disciplinary, punitive nature. If a code does not actually regulate the conduct of the members of a profession, it effectively has no public declaration that serves as a basis for society to recognize it as a profession. Society recognizes the autonomy of a profession provided that it obliges its members to adhere to higher standards of conduct than members of other groups adhere to, and therefore professional standards must be known to the population and must be perceived as higher than other standards.
2. The Code is intended to protect the public interest and the interests of those whom the profession serves. If society does not benefit from granting autonomy to a profession, it should deprive it of that privilege. The Code should not be a means of self-service for the profession. Codes can be used to serve the interests of the profession at the expense of the public. Some rules (for example, rules regarding the setting of fees or restrictions on advertising) protect the profession and are contrary to the public interest. Code provisions that discourage competition within a profession are generally not in the public interest; they are aimed at emphasizing the negative, monopolistic properties of the profession.
3. Codes must be precise and fair. A code that simply states that members of a profession must not lie, steal or deceive does not require anything more than is required of all other people. When a code is written honestly, it reflects aspects of the profession that characterize the particular specific temptations that members of the profession may experience. Autonomy is granted to the profession because it knows the possible specific mistakes, the shortcomings of this profession - its dark sides, its unethical, although not entirely illegal, methods. Unless such practices are clearly defined in the code, the profession effectively has no control over its activities.
4. The code must be both controllable and controlling. If the code does not contain provisions for bringing charges and imposing penalties, it is no more than a declaration of ideals. If a profession cannot demonstrate through its entire activities that it controls its members, society has no reason to believe that it does so. In such cases there are no grounds for granting special privileges to the profession. Accordingly, society must pass laws relating to the activities of members of a given profession and establishing control over their activities, just as it controls members of other occupations.

Although professions can enforce the rules of their codes, they are not judicial bodies. Violations of the professional code will result in only limited disciplinary action. The most severe punishment, as mentioned above, can be exclusion from the profession along with public disclosure of the offense. The most common practice is censure.

Professional codes tend to ignore such problems faced by at least some members of the profession. Professional codes often specify responsibilities to the client or patient, to the employer (if a member of the profession is employed), to the public and to the profession itself. What does a member of the profession have to do when these responsibilities conflict with each other? For example, what should a company doctor do when he is told not to disclose information about rising rates of work-related illness among factory workers? Are his responsibilities towards society and towards patients (workers) higher than his responsibilities towards the entrepreneur?

Moreover, professional codes provide no guidance on what action should be taken when the profession itself acts inappropriately.

Professional ethics of a lawyer

Ethics is the doctrine of the norms of morality and morality that have developed in society and which every person must observe. If he doesn’t do this, then living in such a society, in my opinion, will simply become impossible. Would anyone like it if, say, they were treated disrespectfully or insulted? Such a society has no future, and sooner or later it will definitely collapse.

The professional ethics of a lawyer are also norms of morality and morality, only related directly to the activities of a lawyer. They are enshrined in the Code of Professional Ethics for Lawyers, which was adopted by the All-Russian Congress of Lawyers. They are an integral part of the work of every lawyer and are as important as legal knowledge. Without compliance with these standards, the existence of the legal community as a whole is impossible. Each lawyer is obliged to carry out his activities strictly in accordance with ethical rules and not to violate the professional ethics of a lawyer. As noted in the Code of Professional Ethics for Lawyers, morality is higher than the will of the client. In addition, compliance with the professional ethics of a lawyer is also entrusted to assistants and trainees of lawyers in the part corresponding to their work responsibilities, which in turn once again emphasizes the importance of the standards of professional ethics of a lawyer.

So, professional ethical standards of lawyers can be divided into several groups that regulate:

Relationship between lawyer and client;
- relations between lawyers;
- the lawyer’s relationship with the court and other authorities.

Relationship between lawyer and client

The Code of Professional Ethics for Lawyers explains in great detail the rules of conduct that a lawyer must adhere to when providing legal assistance to his client. First of all, this is the rule on maintaining attorney-client privilege. This is perhaps one of the most important and basic rules of professional ethics for a lawyer. Because without confidence in maintaining attorney-client privilege, there will be no trust between a lawyer and his client. And without trust, it is difficult to provide qualified legal assistance. Attorney-client privilege is absolutely any information communicated by the client to the lawyer, the storage period of which is not limited in time. Such information is also not subject to disclosure.

Also, another rule of professional ethics for a lawyer is that a lawyer cannot provide legal assistance to a client based on his own benefit, immoral interests or as a result of outside pressure.

A lawyer cannot act contrary to the will of the principal and take a position in the case that is opposite to the position of the principal. The only exception is if the lawyer defending a criminal case is convinced of his client’s self-incrimination.

Another important rule is that a lawyer cannot defend persons whose interests conflict with each other’s interests.

Relationships between lawyers

Relations between lawyers must be based on mutual respect. A lawyer must not use expressions that detract from the honor, dignity, or business reputation of another lawyer in connection with his legal practice. The professional ethics of a lawyer in this case requires respect for a colleague.

Relations between a lawyer and the court and other authorities

Here the lawyer must also behave tactfully and avoid rudeness. So, for example, if a lawyer objects to the actions of judges and other participants in the process, then he must do this in the correct form and in accordance with the law.

The above rules of professional ethics for a lawyer are just part of those rules that are enshrined in the Code of Professional Ethics for Lawyers. They are mandatory for a lawyer when carrying out his activities. If a lawyer does not comply with these rules of professional ethics of a lawyer, then he is subject to disciplinary liability, which can be expressed in a remark, a warning, or even termination of his status as a lawyer. But the most important thing is that, without complying with the Code of Professional Ethics, a lawyer will not be able to provide qualified legal assistance to his client.

I would also like to note that if a lawyer is not sure how to act in a difficult ethical situation, he has the right to contact the Council of the relevant bar association of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation for clarification.

Ethics of professional activity

Professional ethics is a system of moral principles, norms and rules of conduct for a specialist, taking into account the characteristics of his professional activity and specific situation. Professional ethics should be an integral part of the training of every specialist. The content of any professional ethics consists of the general and the specific.

General principles of professional ethics, based on universal human moral standards, presuppose:

A) professional solidarity (sometimes degenerating into corporatism);
b) a special understanding of duty and honor;
c) a special form of responsibility determined by the subject and type of activity.

Particular principles arise from specific conditions, content and specifics of a particular profession and are expressed mainly in moral codes - requirements in relation to specialists.

Professional ethics, as a rule, concern only those types of professional activities in which there is various kinds of dependence of people on the actions of a professional, that is, the consequences or processes of these actions have a special impact on the lives and destinies of other people or humanity. In this regard, traditional types of professional ethics are distinguished, such as pedagogical, psychological, medical, legal, scientist ethics, and relatively new ones, the emergence or actualization of which is associated with the increasing role of the “human factor” in this type of activity (engineering ethics) or strengthening its influence in society (journalistic ethics, bioethics).

Professionalism and attitude to work are important qualitative characteristics of a person’s moral character. They are of paramount importance in the personal assessment of an individual, but at different stages of historical development their content and assessment varied significantly. In a class-differentiated society, they are determined by the social inequality of types of labor, the opposition of mental and physical labor, the presence of privileged and unprivileged professions, and depend on the degree of class consciousness of professional groups, the sources of their replenishment, the level of general culture of the individual, and so on.

Professional ethics is not a consequence of inequality in the degree of morality of different professional groups. But society places increased moral demands on certain types of professional activities. There are professional areas in which the labor process itself is based on high coordination of the actions of its participants, exacerbating the need for solidarity behavior. Particular attention is paid to the moral qualities of workers in those professions that are associated with the right to manage people’s lives, significant material assets, some professions in the service sector, transport, management, healthcare, education, and so on. Here we are not talking about the actual level of morality, but about an obligation, which, if left unrealized, can in any way interfere with the performance of professional functions.

A profession is a certain type of work activity that requires the necessary knowledge and skills acquired as a result of training and long-term work practice.

Professional types of ethics are those specific features of professional activity that are aimed directly at a person in certain conditions of his life and activities in society.

Professional moral norms are guidelines, rules, samples, standards, the order of internal self-regulation of the individual based on ethical and humanistic ideals. The emergence of professional ethics preceded the creation of scientific ethical theories about it. Everyday experience and the need to regulate relationships between people of a particular profession led to the awareness and formulation of certain requirements of professional ethics. Public opinion plays an active role in the formation and assimilation of professional ethics standards.

Professional ethics, having initially emerged as a manifestation of everyday, ordinary moral consciousness, later developed on the basis of the general practice of behavior of representatives of each professional group. These generalizations were summarized both in written and unwritten codes of conduct of various professional groups, and in the form of theoretical conclusions, which indicated a transition from ordinary to theoretical consciousness in the field of professional morality.

The main types of professional ethics are: medical ethics, pedagogical ethics, ethics of a scientist, ethics of law, entrepreneur (businessman), engineer, etc. Each type of professional ethics is determined by the uniqueness of professional activity, has its own specific aspects in the implementation of norms and principles of morality and in collectively constitutes a professional code of morality.

Professional and universal ethics

Professional activity leads to many ethical issues that are not considered and cannot be resolved by means of universal ethics. Professional ethics studies professional morality as a specification of general moral principles and norms in relation to the characteristics of a particular type of professional activity.

Professional morality arises with the social division of labor, which laid the foundation for the professional separation of social groups. With the formation of professional groups, a social need arises to regulate the relations of people within these groups. Initially, this was a small circle of professions, which, in the process of further specialization of labor, became increasingly differentiated, as a result of which more and more new professions emerged.

Depending on specific historical conditions, one or another aspect of professional activity comes to the fore. Society's attitude towards it determines its value.

What determines the moral assessment of a profession? Firstly, by what this profession objectively provides for social development. Secondly, the fact that this profession gives a person subjectively, in the sense of a moral impact on him. Every profession, insofar as it exists, performs a certain social function. Representatives of this profession have their own social purpose, their own functions, their own goals. This or that profession determines the choice of a specific communication environment, which leaves its mark on people regardless of whether they want it or not.

Within each professional group, certain specific connections and relationships of people develop. Depending on the object of labor, the tools of labor, the techniques used and the tasks being solved, a unique variety of situations, difficulties and even dangers arise that require a certain type of action, method, and psychological reaction from a person. Each profession gives birth to its own moral “temptations”, moral “valor” and “losses”, certain contradictions arise, and unique ways of resolving them are developed.

A person is involved in professional activity with his subjective world of feelings, experiences, aspirations, moral assessments, with his own way of thinking. Among the diverse situations in professional relations, the most typical ones begin to stand out, which characterize the relative independence of the profession and its moral atmosphere. And this, in turn, determines the specificity of people’s actions and the uniqueness of their norms of behavior.

Thus, as soon as professional relations acquired qualitative stability, this led to the formation of special moral attitudes corresponding to the nature of work, i.e., to the emergence of professional morality with its initial cell - a norm reflecting the practical expediency of certain forms of relationships both between members of a professional group, and between the group itself and society. The historical development of professional norms went from concrete to abstract. Initially, its meaning is purely specific and is associated with a specific real action or object. Only as a result of long-term development does its semantic content acquire a general, strictly moral meaning.

Each era has its own set of distinct professional norms, i.e. professional morality. Having arisen, professional morality becomes a certain spiritual reality with relative independence. It begins to live its own life and turns into an object of comprehension, study, analysis, assimilation, and becomes a force directing the behavior of a representative of a particular profession. If there were a code of ethical principles that applied to all cultures, philosophies, beliefs and professions, it could provide a universally useful system that would compel people to act according to their conscience and guide our actions.

There are many decision-making techniques, but only a few show when situations might have moral implications. However, the information itself is the first decisive step towards decision-making. Recognizing the moral implications of a situation must precede any attempt to solve the problem. Otherwise, what needs to be done?

Moral collisions and conflicts are very rarely presented to us as expected and predictable. They usually come suddenly before we have time to recognize them, or develop so gradually that we recognize them only in retrospect; it's like we only notice a snake after we've been bitten.

The following rules of ethical behavior can be suggested as guidelines - general guidelines that should be used as a compulsion to work according to one's moral principles. They are non-absolute and rather more like an approximate system of measures, where a single exact option is impossible. They often conflict in practice, and sometimes one option has much more advantages under certain circumstances. But these principles must be taken into account.

In a sense, these principles are the children of the ancestors of all principles - unconditional love and compassion. They appear in all religions, and in this case they are expressed as “concern for the well-being of others.” They are also similar to the statement that we should simply follow our intuition and rely on our “inner voice.” However, this voice is not always clear, and today's society can present complex circumstances that require more management than "concern for others." This set of standards of behavior is offered as a more detailed reference.

For ease of reference, the principles are grouped into three categories; personal, professional and global ethics.

Principles of personal ethics

These principles can be called morals because they reflect the general expectations of every person in any society. These are the principles that we try to instill in our children and that we expect from others.

They include:

Concern for the well-being of others;
respect for the right of others to be autonomous;
reliability and honesty;
voluntary obedience to the law (except for civil disobedience);
justice;
refusing unfair advantage over others;
charity, the opportunity to benefit;
prevention of harmful consequences.

Principles of professional ethics of a psychologist

In addition to what all people strive for, a person, when acting in a work environment, takes on the burden of additional ethical responsibilities. For example, professional associations have codes of ethical rules that specify required behavior within the context of professional practice, such as psychology. These written attitudes determine the behavior and activities of the psychologist.

The “Ethical Code of a Psychologist”, adopted by the V Congress of the Russian Psychological Society, reveals the “ethical principles of a psychologist”: “the principle of respect (respect for dignity, rights and freedoms of the individual, confidentiality, awareness and voluntary consent of the Client, self-determination of the Client), the principle of competence (knowledge of professional ethics , limiting professional competence, limiting the means used, professional development), the principle of responsibility (primary responsibility, not causing harm, resolving ethical dilemmas), the principle of integrity (awareness of the limits of personal and professional capabilities, honesty, directness and openness, avoiding conflicts of interest, responsibility and openness to the professional community).”

Principles of World Ethics

Each of us influences the world simply by simply existing (it’s always wise to think globally!). An additional measure of responsibility is established at a level corresponding to the global level, such as, for example, governments and transnational corporations (with increasing power, responsibility also increases, whether we like it or not).

One element of the burden of leadership is the ability to influence society and accomplish world affairs (in a positive sense). Can a person (or company) be truly successful while causing human suffering or causing irreparable damage to the environment? A modern and complete model for success must also consider the impact on humanity and the environment.

The principles of global ethics include:

Compliance with global legislation;
social responsibility;
environmental management;
interdependence and responsibility
for integrity;
respectful attitude towards housing.

Coexistence of principles

It is important to keep in mind that the principles of personal ethics are the first reference point in any situation, including the Levels of Professional and Worldwide Ethics. For example, when we judge whether a corporation has been internationally socially responsible, the principles of personal responsibility must be taken into account as a prerequisite. Charitable contributions (the ability to do good) may mean nothing if the corporation has not taken responsibility for minimizing the harm caused by its business operations (preventing harm).

Social functions of professional ethics

Since professional ethics is formed on the basis of the characteristic duties and tasks of the profession, on the situations in which people may find themselves in the process of performing these tasks, the first and main social function of professional ethics is to facilitate the successful solution of the tasks of the profession. In addition, professional ethics plays the role of a mediator, combining the interests of society and professional groups of the population. The interests of society appear in professional ethics in the form of an obligation, a requirement, an obligation to fulfill public tasks, to achieve public ideals.

Professional ethics is involved in coordinating the interests of society and the individual within this social group; this is also one of its social functions. Various types of professional ethics have their own traditions, more or less long-standing, which indicates the continuity of the basic ethical standards developed by representatives of a particular profession over the decades.

Professional ethics, thus, carries out the connection and inheritance of progressive moral values in the moral relations of the labor sphere of society; This is also one of the most important social functions of professional ethics.

Standards of professional ethics

Every person who has recently started work wants to move up the career ladder. Many people start with small positions, working as interns or with a probationary period. The first stages of work are the most important period, during which management and employees form an opinion about a new person. And career advancement depends on the start.

The person is promoted by the immediate superiors, offering a higher position, a more responsible and highly paid post. At the first stage, you should immediately clearly and irrevocably determine your place in the team. Having taken a closer look at the working style adopted in this company, decide for yourself at what level of professional level you are now.

Very often, it is a violation of business and professional ethics that is a strong brake on the path to career heights. Promotion is influenced by many factors: behavior in a team, at corporate events, relationships with colleagues, correctly chosen clothing style, competent speech, etc.

All this is also true for people who want to firmly establish themselves in the world of market relations and achieve their goals. Since modern commerce is often based on international business relations, you should know the rules of etiquette adopted in other countries and strictly follow them. Failure to comply with behavioral standards often leads to the severance of stable partnerships and loss of markets. The rules of business etiquette change over time. But every business person should know that today it is not enough just to be friendly and polite. General principles in business etiquette acquire their own specifics.

This can be expressed in five basic rules - a guide for people associated with business:

1. Punctuality. Being late for work interferes with the ongoing work process and characterizes the offender as an employee who cannot be relied upon. A business person calculates the time to complete each stage of work down to the minute. Practice shows that it should be determined with a small margin, taking into account unforeseen circumstances. A business person calculates all actions ahead, does not waste time, anticipates complications and delays, adjusts his schedule and strives to comply with it.
2. Non-disclosure of unnecessary information. Personnel, technological, administrative, and financial secrets of the company should not be the subject of discussion among employees. It is unacceptable to disclose the organization's trade secrets, as well as information about the personal lives of colleagues.
3. Caring not only for yourself, but also for other team members. In order to effectively and successfully conduct business, one should take into account the interests, opinions and principles of partners, customers, corporate clients, etc. In the work process, selfishness, excessive emotionality, incontinence, unfair competition, intrigues with colleagues for the purpose of self-realization and career advancement are unacceptable. You should listen to your interlocutors patiently and treat other people’s opinions with due respect, even if they contradict your own. Such manifestations as intolerance of other people's opinions, humiliation and insult of an opponent are unacceptable. A business person is well aware that in the business world, repeat situations and cooperation with today's competitors are possible.
4. Business attire. A person’s appearance should correspond to his status in the team, not deviate from the generally accepted style, and indicate taste, rigor and modesty. It is important that the clothes are fully consistent with the work environment, do not irritate colleagues, and are clean, ironed and neat.
5. Competent oral and written presentation of thoughts. Both oral and written speech of a business person must be clearly structured, accessible and competent. For successful public speaking and everyday communication in the office with employees, partners and customers, it does not hurt to study the art of rhetoric. Clear diction is especially important. If there are speech defects, it is best to visit a speech therapist and make efforts to correct them. In business communication, the use of colloquial and slang words, argotisms, slang, and offensive expressions is unacceptable. Intonation and pronunciation are of great importance, especially in conversations with foreign citizens, partners or clients. A business person knows how not only to speak, but also to listen to others.

There are certain rules of communication between colleagues of different genders:

Men do not allow rudeness or sharp words in the presence of women.
Men hold the doors of their female colleagues, letting them pass first.
Men stand in the presence of a female colleague if she is standing.
A man gives a coat to a female colleague if they happen to be in the wardrobe at the same time. If a female colleague leaves while men are busy at work, it is permissible to deviate from this rule: the main thing is work.

It is important to remember that restrained and limited display of ethical standards and courtesies during the work process is not considered a violation of the rules.

Professional ethics of a teacher

Teacher ethics is, in our opinion, a completely special phenomenon.

And yet, its essence and content, like any professional ethics, are most fully and consistently revealed through an analysis of its structure, in which four main blocks can be distinguished:

Firstly, this is the ethics of the teacher’s attitude to his work, to the subject of his activity.

Secondly, this is the ethics of relationships “vertically” - in the “teacher-student” system, which considers the basic principles, norms of these relationships and the requirements for the personality and behavior of the teacher.

Thirdly, this is the ethics of relationships “horizontally” - in the “teacher-teacher” system, which considers those relationships that are regulated not so much by general norms, but by the specifics of the activity and psychology of the teacher.

Fourthly, this is the ethics of administrative and business relations between the teacher and governing structures, which prescribes certain “rules of the game” for both parties, aimed at optimizing the management of the education system.

The proposed approach does not pretend to be the “ultimate truth,” but it allows us to pose and consider the most important problems of pedagogical culture, such as the ethical and psychological aspects of a teacher’s professional activity. To do this, first of all, it is necessary to identify the specifics of this activity.

Principles of professional ethics

Professional ethics regulates the relationships between people in business communication. Professional ethics are based on certain norms, requirements and principles.

Principles are abstract, generalized ideas that enable those who rely on them to correctly form their behavior and actions in the business sphere. Principles provide a specific employee in any organization with a conceptual ethical platform for decisions, actions, actions, interactions, etc.

The order of the ethical principles considered is not determined by their significance. The essence of the first principle comes from the so-called gold standard: “Within the framework of your official position, never allow your official position in relation to your subordinates, management, or colleagues; to clients, etc. such actions that I would not want to see towards myself.”

The second principle: fairness is needed when providing employees with the resources necessary for their work activities (monetary, raw materials, material, etc.). The third principle requires mandatory correction of an ethical violation, regardless of when and by whom it was committed.

The fourth principle is the principle of maximum progress: the official behavior and actions of an employee are recognized as ethical if they contribute to the development of the organization (or its divisions) from a moral point of view.

The fifth principle is the principle of minimum progress, according to which the actions of an employee or organization as a whole are ethical if they at least do not violate ethical standards.

Sixth principle: ethical is the tolerant attitude of the organization’s employees towards moral principles, traditions, etc., that take place in other organizations, regions, countries.

The seventh principle recommends a reasonable combination of individual relativism and ethical relativism with the requirements of universal (universal) ethics. Eighth principle: individual and collective principles are equally recognized as the basis when developing and making decisions in business relationships.

The ninth principle: you should not be afraid to have your own opinion when resolving any official issues. However, nonconformism as a personality trait should manifest itself within reasonable limits.

The tenth principle is no violence, i.e. “pressure” on subordinates, expressed in various forms, for example, in an orderly, commanding manner of conducting an official conversation.

The eleventh principle is consistency of impact, which is expressed in the fact that ethical standards can be introduced into the life of an organization not with a one-time order, but only with the help of continuous efforts on the part of both the manager and ordinary employees.

The twelfth principle is when influencing (on a team, an individual employee, a consumer, etc.), take into account the strength of possible resistance. The fact is that while recognizing the value and necessity of ethical standards in theory, many workers, when faced with them in practical everyday work, for one reason or another begin to resist them.

The thirteenth principle is the advisability of making advances based on trust - the employee’s sense of responsibility, his competence, sense of duty, etc.

The fourteenth principle strongly recommends striving for non-conflict. Although conflict in the business sphere has not only dysfunctional but also functional consequences, nevertheless, conflict is a fertile ground for ethical violations.

The fifteenth principle is freedom without limiting the freedom of others; Usually this principle, although in an implicit form, is determined by job descriptions.

Sixteenth principle: the employee must not only act ethically himself, but also encourage the same behavior of his colleagues.

Seventeenth principle: do not criticize your competitor. This means not only a competing organization, but also an “internal competitor” - a team from another department, a colleague in whom one can “see” a competitor.

These principles should serve as the basis for each employee of any company to develop their own personal ethical system.

The professional ethics of a journalist are not legally fixed, but accepted in the journalistic environment and supported by the power of public opinion, professional and creative organizations - moral instructions - principles, norms and rules of moral behavior of a journalist.

Journalistic ethics extends to the decision-making process in specific situations, but even here the choice must be related to fundamental rules and principles. For journalists and other information workers, this means making choices that are consistent with the rules and principles of the profession as set out in the code of ethics. In practice, moral choice presupposes a certain freedom in decision-making, in which gradations of rightness and wrongness are possible, since it is impossible to find a moral solution that is suitable for all cases of life. Some ethical rules and principles are codified in law, in which case the state requires its citizens to follow a specific rule or principle in their decision-making process.

Thus, a worker in journalism, a profession where there are so many standardized techniques but so few absolute rules, has a whole range of possible decisions, choosing between ethical and unethical action. Due to this circumstance, we still cannot agree on what, in fact, constitutes “ethical” behavior of a journalist.

The pursuit of truth is a moral imperative for most civilized people, but many journalists, even highly moral ones, have committed lies in the service, as they claim, of the public good. Defenders of journalistic ethics usually make a distinction between fundamental principles of morality and their application in everyday situations, when moral choices must be made under time pressure and lack of opportunity to analyze circumstances.

If there are strict principles, ethical standards are less regulated, and the rules of conduct for a journalist are determined almost for each specific case. This is important to keep in mind, firstly, so that journalists can distinguish ethical norms from legal norms and, secondly, so that they understand that the ethicality (or unethicalness) of their behavior is determined not on the basis of general principles, but situationally, within a fairly broad framework. This does not mean that ethical decisions are voluntaristic in nature, and ethics is relational, relative and subjective.

This only says that a journalist must have, knowing the principles of ethics, a highly developed moral consciousness and experience of moral behavior, which in each specific case for himself and in relation to colleagues will help him decide what and how ethical or unethical. Therefore, the “court of honor” of journalism must take into account specific circumstances, subtly understand the nuances of relationships between people, ethical analysis and self-analysis are mandatory. Although a very complex one, it is a component of journalistic practice.

Rule of professional ethics

Society is increasingly aware that the rule of law is not only a set of competent civilized laws, but also the possibility of their implementation, as well as the ability of the population to use their rights. And this is not possible without professional lawyers, in particular lawyers, called upon to assist citizens and legal entities.

As A. Boykov rightly wrote: “The professional maturity of a specialist cannot be characterized only by a certain amount of knowledge, skills, and abilities; it also includes the corresponding level of moral development of the individual, mastery of the moral requirements of a given profession.” Therefore, one of the most important issues in legal practice is the issue of professional ethics of a lawyer.

In the activity of a lawyer, situations arise more often and more acutely than in any other activity of a lawyer, the resolution of which depends on compliance not only with legal, but also with moral and moral norms.

The rules of professional ethics of a lawyer are a set of provisions that define the requirements for the personality of a lawyer and his behavior when performing professional duties, as well as in relationships with clients, colleagues, legal self-government bodies, government bodies, institutions and officials, public and other organizations.

In accordance with the Rules, a lawyer must comply with the law and adhere to the standards of professional morality, constantly maintaining the honor and dignity of his profession as a participant in the administration of justice and a public figure, as well as personal honor and dignity. He should take care of the prestige of his profession and increasing its role in society.

A lawyer must adhere to the customs and traditions established in the legal profession, the content of which corresponds to the general ideals and principles of morality in society. Violation of the rules of professional ethics entails disciplinary liability.

The legal profession is a free profession based on the rule of law, trust and independence. In his professional activities, a lawyer is completely independent. Interference in the professional activities of a lawyer is prohibited.

A lawyer performs professional duties to protect the legal rights and interests of clients freely and independently, with dignity and tact, honestly, diligently and confidentially.

The rules of professional ethics call on a lawyer to ensure the dignity of the profession and personal dignity, which consists in the lawyer’s special moral attitude towards himself, which determines the appropriate attitude towards him from society.

Establishing and maintaining the dignity of a lawyer presupposes the commission of appropriate moral acts and the non-commitment of actions that degrade his dignity. Behavior of a lawyer that discredits his high title and undermines public confidence in the legal profession is considered degrading professional dignity.

The rules establish requirements for a lawyer that he must meet in order to maintain honor and dignity. The rules of professional ethics are also aimed at regulating the lawyer’s relationships with colleagues and clients.

Of particular importance are the rules that a lawyer must adhere to in relations with clients. A lawyer cannot refuse to accept an assignment to a person who has applied for legal assistance, without sufficient grounds. The rules of professional ethics provide for cases in which a lawyer must refuse to accept an assignment and conduct a case.

In relations with law enforcement and other government bodies and officials, public and other organizations, with barrister self-government bodies and the qualification commission, a lawyer must also adhere to the ethical standards set out in the Rules.

The rules of professional ethics are a kind of guideline in the complex and multifaceted legal practice, saturated with moral conflicts and contradictions. Some of these moral norms have become mandatory laws.

Modern professional ethics

Modern ethics is faced with a rather difficult situation in which many traditional moral values have been revised. Traditions, which previously were largely seen as the basis of the original moral principles, often turned out to be destroyed. They have lost their importance due to global processes developing in society and the rapid pace of change in production, its reorientation towards mass consumption. As a result, a situation arose in which opposing moral principles appeared as equally valid, equally deducible from reason. This, according to A. MacIntyre, led to the fact that rational arguments in morality were mainly used to prove theses that those who presented these arguments already had in advance.

This, on the one hand, led to an anti-normative turn in ethics, expressed in the desire to proclaim an individual person as a full-fledged and self-sufficient subject of moral requirements, to place on him the full burden of responsibility for independently made decisions. The anti-normative tendency is represented in the ideas of F. Nietzsche, in existentialism, and in postmodern philosophy. On the other hand, there was a desire to limit the area of ethics to a fairly narrow range of issues related to the formulation of such rules of behavior that can be accepted by people with different life orientations, with different understandings of the goals of human existence, and the ideals of self-improvement. As a result, the category of good, traditional for ethics, seemed to be taken beyond the boundaries of morality, and the latter began to develop mainly as an ethics of rules. In line with this trend, the topic of human rights is further developed, and new attempts are made to build ethics as a theory of justice. One such attempt is presented in J. Rawls’s book “A Theory of Justice.”

New scientific discoveries and new technologies have given a powerful boost to the development of applied ethics. In the 20th century Many new professional codes of morality were developed, business ethics, bioethics, legal ethics, media workers, etc. were developed. Scientists, doctors, and philosophers began to discuss problems such as organ transplants, euthanasia, the creation of transgenic animals, and human cloning. Man, to a much greater extent than before, felt his responsibility for the development of all life on Earth and began to discuss these problems not only from the point of view of his own interests of survival, but also from the point of view of recognizing the intrinsic value of the fact of life, the fact of existence as such (Schweitzer, moral realism).

An important step, representing a reaction to the current situation in the development of society, was an attempt to understand morality in a constructive way, to present it as an endless discourse aimed at developing solutions acceptable to all its participants. This is developed in the works of K.O. Apel, J. Habermas, R. Alexi and others. The ethics of discourse is directed against anti-normativism; it tries to develop common guidelines that can unite people in the fight against the global threats facing humanity.

An undoubted achievement of modern ethics has been the identification of the weaknesses of the utilitarian theory, the formulation of the thesis that some basic human rights should be understood in the absolute sense as values that are not directly related to the issue of the public good. They must be respected even when this does not lead to an increase in public goods.

One of the problems that remains as relevant in modern ethics as in the ethics of past years is the problem of substantiating the original moral principle, searching for an answer to the question of what can be the basis of morality, whether moral judgments can be considered in as true or false, respectively - is it possible to specify any value criterion to determine this? A fairly influential group of philosophers denies the possibility of considering normative judgments as those that can be considered true or false. These are, first of all, philosophers who develop the approach of logical positivism in ethics. They believe that so-called descriptive judgments have nothing in common with normative judgments. The latter express, from their point of view, only the will of the speaker and therefore, unlike judgments of the first type, they cannot be assessed in terms of logical truth or falsehood. One of the classic variants of this approach was the so-called emotivism (A. Iyer). Emotivists believe that moral judgments do not have any truth, but simply convey the emotions of the speaker. These emotions influence the listener in terms of creating a desire to side with the speaker, caused by emotional resonance. Other philosophers of this group generally abandon the task of searching for the original meaning of moral judgments and put forward as the goal of theoretical ethics only a logical analysis of the connection between individual judgments, aimed at achieving their consistency (R. Hear, R. Bandt). Nevertheless, even analytical philosophers who have declared the analysis of the logical connection of moral judgments as the main task of theoretical ethics still usually proceed from the fact that the judgments themselves have some kind of foundation. They may be based on historical intuitions, on the rational desires of individual individuals, but this already goes beyond the competence of theoretical ethics as a science.

A number of authors note the formalism of this position and seek to somehow soften it. Thus, V. Frankena and R. Holmes say that whether some judgments contradict others or not will depend on our very initial understandings of morality. R. Holmes believes that introducing a specific value position into the definition of morality is unlawful. However, it allows for "the possibility of including some real content (for example, reference to the public good) and an idea of the sources of morality." This position involves going beyond the logical analysis of moral statements, but, despite the desire to overcome formalism (Holmes himself calls his position and the position of V. Frankena substantialist), it still remains too abstract. Explaining why an individual still behaves as a moral subject, R. Holmes says: “The same interest that motivates an individual to adhere to a normal and orderly life should also encourage him to create and maintain the conditions under which such a life is possible.” Probably no one will object that such a definition (and at the same time the justification of morality) is reasonable. But it leaves many questions: for example, about what a normal and orderly life actually consists of (which desires can and should be encouraged and which ones limited), to what extent the individual is really interested in maintaining the general conditions of a normal life, why, Suppose you sacrifice your life for the sake of your homeland, if you yourself still won’t see its prosperity (the question asked by Lorenzo Valla)? Apparently, such questions give rise to the desire of some thinkers not only to point out the limited possibilities of ethical theory, but also to abandon the procedure for justifying morality altogether. A. Schopenhauer was the first to express the idea that the rational justification of morality undermines the fundamentality of its principles. This position has some support in modern Russian ethics.

Other philosophers believe that the procedure for justifying morality still has a positive meaning; the foundations of morality can be found in reasonable self-restraint of interests, in historical tradition, common sense, corrected by scientific thinking.

In order to positively answer the question about the prospects for justifying morality, it is necessary, first of all, to distinguish between the principles of ethics of duty and ethics of virtues. Christian ethics, which can be called the ethics of duty, certainly contains the idea of morality as the highest absolute value. The priority of the moral motive presupposes the same treatment of different people, regardless of their achievements in practical life. This is an ethic of strict limitations and universal love. One of the ways to substantiate it is an attempt to derive morality from a person’s ability to universalize his behavior, the idea of what would happen if everyone acted the same way as I am going to do. This attempt was most developed in Kantian ethics and continues in modern ethical discussions. However, in contrast to Kant's approach, in modern ethics self-interest is not strictly opposed to moral capacity, and universalization is seen not as that which creates the moral capacity from reason itself, but simply as a control procedure used to test various expedient rules of conduct for their commonality. acceptability.

However, such a concept of morality, in which it is considered, first of all, as a means of controlling behavior, carried out from the point of view of preventing the violation of the dignity of other people, not grossly trampling on their interests, i.e. not using another person only as a means for realizing one’s own interests (which in rough form can be expressed in extreme forms of exploitation, slavery, zombification in someone’s political interests through the use of dirty political technologies) turns out to be insufficient. There is a need to consider morality more broadly, in connection with its influence on the quality of performance of all those types of social activities in which a person is actually involved. In this case, the need again arises to talk about virtues in the ancient tradition, that is, in connection with a sign of perfection in the performance of a certain social function. The difference between the ethics of duty and the ethics of virtues is very important, since the principles on which these types of moral theory are based turn out to be contradictory to a certain extent, and they have different degrees of categoricalness. The ethics of duty gravitates towards an absolute form of expression of its principles. In it, man is always considered as the highest value, all people are equal in dignity, regardless of their practical achievements.

These achievements themselves turn out to be insignificant when compared with eternity, God, and that is why a person necessarily takes the position of a “slave” in such ethics. If all slaves are before God, the real difference between slave and master turns out to be insignificant. Such a statement looks like a form of affirmation of human dignity, despite the fact that a person here seems to voluntarily take on the role of a slave, the role of a lower being, relying in everything on the mercy of the deity. But, as already mentioned, such an affirmation of the equal dignity of all people in an absolute sense is not enough to morally encourage their practical social activity. In virtue ethics, man himself, as it were, lays claim to the divine. Already in Aristotle, in his highest intellectual virtues, he becomes like a deity.

This means that virtue ethics allows for different degrees of perfection, not just perfection in the ability to control one’s thoughts and overcome the craving for sin (a task that is also posed in the ethics of duty), but also perfection in the ability to perform the social function that a person undertakes to perform . This introduces relativity into the moral assessment of what a person is as a person, i.e. in virtue ethics, different moral attitudes towards different people are allowed, because their dignity depends in this type of ethics on the specific character traits of people and their achievements in practical life . Moral qualities are correlated here with various social abilities and appear as very differentiated.

Fundamentally different types of moral motivation are associated with duty ethics and virtue ethics.

In those cases when the moral motive manifests itself most clearly, when it does not merge with other social motives of activity, the external situation serves as an incentive for the initiation of moral activity. At the same time, behavior is fundamentally different from that which develops on the basis of the usual sequence: need-interest-goal. For example, if a person rushes to save a drowning man, he does so not because he has previously experienced some emotional stress, similar to, say, hunger, but simply because he understands or intuitively feels what subsequent life with the consciousness of an unfulfilled duty will represent for him. him torment. Thus, behavior here is based on the anticipation of strong negative emotions associated with the idea of a violation of moral requirements and the desire to avoid them. However, the need to perform such selfless actions, in which the features of the ethics of duty are most evident, is relatively rare. Revealing the essence of the moral motive, it is necessary to explain not only the fear of torment due to an unfulfilled duty or remorse, but also the positive direction of long-term activity of behavior, which inevitably manifests itself when it comes to one’s own good. It is clear that the justification for the need for such behavior is not carried out in some emergency circumstances, and its determination requires not an episodic, but a long-term goal. Such a goal can be realized only in connection with the individual’s general ideas about the happiness of life, about the entire nature of his relationships with other people.

Is it possible to reduce morality only to the restrictions following from the rule of universalization, to behavior based on reason, freed from emotions that interfere with sober reasoning? Certainly not. Since the time of Aristotle it has been known that without emotions there is no moral action.

But if in the ethics of duty strictly defined emotions of compassion, love, and remorse are manifested, in the ethics of virtues the realization of moral qualities is accompanied by numerous positive emotions of a non-moral nature. This happens because there is a unification of moral and other pragmatic motives of existence. A person, performing positive moral actions in accordance with his character virtues, experiences positive emotional states. But positive motivation in this case is introduced into a morally approved action not from any special moral needs, but from all the highest social needs of the individual. At the same time, the orientation of behavior towards moral values enhances emotional self-awareness in the process of satisfying non-moral needs. For example, the joy of creativity in socially significant activities is higher than the joy of creativity in a simple game, because in the first case a person sees in the moral criteria of society a confirmation of the real complexity, sometimes even the uniqueness of the problems he solves. This means enriching some motives of activity with others. Taking into account such a unification and enrichment of some motives of behavior by others, it is quite possible to explain why a person has a personal interest in being moral, that is, being moral not only for society, but also for himself.

In the ethics of duty, the issue is more complex. Due to the fact that a person is taken here regardless of his social functions, goodness acquires an absolute character and makes the theorist want to present it as the initial and rationally indefinable category for constructing the entire ethical system.

The absolute, indeed, cannot be excluded from the sphere of morality and cannot be ignored by theoretical thought that wants to free a person from the burden of phenomena that are incomprehensible to him and not always pleasant for him. In practical terms, proper behavior presupposes the mechanism of conscience, which is cultivated as a reaction imposed on the individual by society to a violation of moral requirements. The manifestation of a strong negative reaction of the subconscious to the assumption of a violation of moral requirements essentially already contains something absolute. But during critical periods of social development, when mass sacrificial behavior is required, automatic reactions of the subconscious and remorse alone are not enough. From the point of view of common sense and the theory based on it, it is very difficult to explain why it is necessary to give one’s life for others. But then it is very difficult to give personal meaning to such a sacrificial act only on the basis of a scientific explanation that this is necessary, say, for the survival of the species. However, the practice of social life requires such actions, and, in this sense, produces the need to strengthen moral motives aimed at this kind of behavior, say, due to the idea of God, hope for posthumous reward, etc.

Thus, the fairly popular absolutist approach to ethics is largely an expression of the practical need to strengthen the moral motives of behavior and a reflection of the fact that morality really exists, despite the fact that from the point of view of common sense a person cannot seem to act against his own interest. But the prevalence of absolutist ideas in ethics, statements that the first principle of morality cannot be substantiated, rather testifies not to the powerlessness of the theory, but to the imperfection of the society in which we live. The creation of a political organization that excludes wars and the solution of nutrition problems based on new energy and technology, as seen, for example, by Vernadsky (the transition to an autotrophic humanity associated with the production of artificial protein), will humanize social life to such an extent that the ethics of duty with its universalism and strict prohibitions on the use of humans as a means will actually be unnecessary due to specific political and legal guarantees of the existence of humans and all other living beings. In virtue ethics, the need to orient personal motives of activity towards moral values can be justified without appealing to abstract metaphysical entities, without the illusory doubling of the world necessary to give moral motives the status of being of absolute significance. This is one of the manifestations of real humanism, because it removes the alienation caused by the fact that external principles of behavior incomprehensible to rational thinking are imposed on a person.

What has been said, however, does not mean that the ethics of duty becomes unnecessary as such. It’s just that its scope is shrinking, and the moral principles developed within the theoretical approaches of the ethics of duty are becoming important for the development of legal norms, in particular, in justifying the concept of human rights. In modern ethics, approaches developed in the ethics of duty, attempts to derive morality from a person’s ability to mentally universalize his behavior are most often used to defend the ideas of liberalism, the basis of which is the desire to create a society in which an individual could satisfy his interests in the most qualitative way, without coming into conflict with the interests of others.

Virtue ethics is related to communitarian approaches, which believe that personal happiness is impossible without making concern for society the subject of one's own aspirations, one's own personal desires. The ethics of duty, on the contrary, serves as the basis for the development of liberal thought, the development of general rules acceptable to everyone, independent of individual life orientations. Communitarians say that the subject of morality should be not only general rules of behavior, but also the standards of excellence for everyone in the type of activity that he actually performs. They draw attention to the connection of morality with a specific local cultural tradition, arguing that without such a connection, morality will simply disappear and human society will disintegrate.

It seems that in order to solve pressing problems of modern ethics it is necessary to combine different principles, including looking for ways to combine the absolute principles of the ethics of duty and the relative principles of virtue ethics, the ideology of liberalism and communitarianism. Arguing from the position of the priority of the individual, it would be, for example, very difficult to explain the duty to future generations, to understand the natural desire of each person to preserve a good memory of himself among his descendants.

Professional ethics of a journalist

Many countries around the world have journalistic codes. At the next consultative meeting of international and regional journalistic organizations, the so-called “International Principles of Journalistic Ethics” were adopted. Above all, they require media professionals to disseminate news truthfully and honestly and ensure the people's right to freely express opinions and freely receive information. Professional and ethical standards developed by the global journalistic community help make objective decisions and determine the corridor within which your free creative space is located.

Media Law and Ethics: Similarities and Differences

Law is a universal regulator that penetrates into all spheres of life. Information law is a branch of legislation dealing with issues of information and informatization.

Journalistic jurisprudence is a scientific academic discipline. Media law is a wide ramified set of norms related to the media; media law is part of the system of journalistic theory and education:

1. closes with the fundamental teaching about the principles and social roles of the press, about the structure of the journalist’s worldview, etc. Forms of existence of law: norms and regulations, legal relations, legal consciousness of people.
2. The law forms standards of behavior for a correspondent and editor; predetermines the choice of certain means of labor. Legal training: legal consciousness – knowledge of norms – methodology of activity.

Morality is the rules of moral behavior, a system of norms that define a person’s responsibilities towards society and other people. Ethics is the doctrine of morality, ethics as one of the forms of social consciousness. Professional morality is a modification of public morality. Professional ethics is a science that studies the professional specifics of morality. Journalistic morality is both a form of social consciousness, a subjective state of the individual, and a real social attitude. Moral regulation of a journalist’s behavior is carried out at the level of principle and norm.

Journalistic codes are reflections of journalistic ethics as a kind of code of norms and rules of professional morality.

International Organization of Journalists. Their code states that a journalist must protect the dignity of his profession and must not resort to unworthy means and methods of obtaining information.

Council on Professional Ethics and Law.

A set of deontological (ethical) rules - the Code of Professional Ethics of the Soviet Journalist, councils on professional ethics and law were created in the republics and territories. The Moscow Charter of Journalists was signed by a group of famous editors; the leaders of the Union of Journalists of Russia compiled a Code of Professional Ethics. The Code of Professional Ethics was approved by the Congress of Journalists of Russia.

The Code has 10 articles. The main thing: a journalist disseminates only reliable information, does not use his profession for personal purposes, recognizes the jurisdiction only of his colleagues, cannot work in politics and government, and loses his status by picking up a weapon.

This is what the codes say about the interaction of journalism with those with whom it works.

Journalist - audience:

1. protect freedom of the press in every possible way;
2. respect the right of people to know the truth (provide them with objective and truthful information about reality in a timely manner, clearly separating facts from opinions; counteract the deliberate concealment of socially significant information and the dissemination of deliberately false data);
3. respect people’s right to their own opinion;
4. respect the moral values and cultural standards of the audience (do not allow your works to savor the details of crimes, indulge in vice, do not offend, including unwittingly, the national, religious, moral feelings of a person);
5. strengthen people’s trust in the media (promote open dialogue with the audience, provide opportunities to respond to criticism, promptly correct significant errors, etc.).

Journalist – source of information:

Use exclusively honorable and legal actions when working with sources to obtain information (methods of illegally obtaining documents, eavesdropping, “hidden camera”, “hidden recording” are used in the most exceptional cases, after full discussion, only in such circumstances that threaten public welfare or people's lives);
respect the right of individuals and legal entities to refuse to provide information (except for situations where the obligation to provide information is provided by law. But more on this below.);
indicate sources of information in materials (if there are no serious reasons, keep them secret);
maintain professional secrecy regarding the source of information (if there are compelling reasons for anonymity);
observe the confidentiality agreed upon when receiving information.

Journalist is a hero:

Take care of the impartiality of your publications (do not write about people whose relationships can be interpreted as self-serving or biased);
respect as a person the person who has become the object of professional journalistic attention (show correctness, tact, and restraint in communicating with him);
respect a person’s right to privacy (not to invade it without the consent of the future hero - except in cases where the hero is a public person, and his private life is of undoubted public interest);
be true to reality, not distort the life of the hero in the material (any attempt to embellish or denigrate it will complicate his relationships with his acquaintances and in their eyes will discredit journalism in general and the author of the publication in particular);
refrain in materials from any disparaging remarks or hints that can humiliate a person (race or skin color, nationality, religion, illness, physical disabilities, ironic play on his name, surname, details of appearance, mentioning him as a criminal, if this has not been established court).

Journalist - colleagues:

Respect the common interests and goals of the journalistic community (prefer them to the interests and goals of political or public organizations; professional solidarity);
take care of the prestige of the profession (do not allow criminal actions, do not accept gifts, services, privileges that compromise the moral purity of a journalist, do not use your official position for personal gain, do not refuse publication and do not write custom materials to please someone’s selfish interests );
come to the aid of colleagues who find themselves in a difficult situation or in trouble;
respect the standards of official relations (discipline and creative initiative, competition and mutual assistance, maintaining a decent moral climate in the editorial office);
respect others and defend your copyrights, respect the right of a colleague to refuse to complete a task if it contradicts his personal beliefs and principles.

Journalist - power:

Show respect for authority as an important social institution;
provide information support to power structures (carry out direct and feedback communication between them and the people);
defend the public’s right to access information about the activities of government agencies;
expose abuses and misconduct of persons working in government structures, take care of the accuracy and evidence of criticism;
defend the right of journalism to independence from government (this is the most important condition for responsible public control over the activities of government agencies);
refute with facts the untrue statements of politicians.

As you understand, moral principles are not an order, not a law, and journalists are divided into those who follow them and those who neglect them. We hope that you are all going to comply with them, however, let us remind you that they are advisory in nature. But there are norms that a journalist must observe, regardless of whether he likes them or not.

Professional ethics of an employee of internal affairs bodies

The moral meaning of the Code of Professional Ethics for Employees of the Internal Affairs Bodies of the Russian Federation can be analyzed by reading in detail each provision of this document.

I consider it necessary to highlight from the Code the fundamental principles that directly reveal the moral meaning and significance of this document.

Moral foundations of service in the internal affairs bodies Every citizen of the Russian Federation who joins the ranks of employees of the internal affairs bodies devotes his life to fulfilling the duty of selfless service to the Fatherland and protecting noble social ideals: freedom, democracy, the triumph of law and order.

The highest moral meaning of an employee’s official activity is the protection of a person, his life and health, honor and personal dignity, inalienable rights and freedoms.

An employee of internal affairs bodies, aware of personal responsibility for the historical fate of the Fatherland, considers it his duty to preserve and enhance fundamental moral values:

Citizenship - as devotion to the Russian Federation, awareness of the unity of rights, freedoms and responsibilities of man and citizen;
- statehood - as the affirmation of the idea of a legal, democratic, strong, indivisible Russian state;
- patriotism - as a deep and sublime feeling of love for the Motherland, loyalty to the Oath of an employee of the internal affairs bodies of the Russian Federation, the chosen profession and official duty.

Also, in this matter it is necessary to indicate the moral principles of service in the internal affairs bodies.

The official activity of an employee of internal affairs bodies is carried out in accordance with moral principles:

Humanism, which proclaims a person, his life and health as the highest values, the protection of which constitutes the meaning and moral content of law enforcement activities;
- legality, which determines the employee’s recognition of the rule of law;
- objectivity, expressed in impartiality and absence of bias when making official decisions;
- justice, meaning the correspondence of the punishment to the nature and severity of the offense or offense;
- tolerance, which consists of a respectful, tolerant attitude towards people, taking into account socio-historical, religious, ethnic traditions and customs.

Moral obligations of an internal affairs officer

Be intolerant of any actions that offend human dignity, cause pain and suffering, constitute torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; to be courageous and undaunted in the face of danger when suppressing crime, eliminating the consequences of accidents and natural disasters, as well as in any situation requiring saving the lives and health of people; show firmness and intransigence in the fight against criminals, using only legal and highly moral means to achieve their goals; in situations of moral choice, follow the ethical principle: a person is always a moral goal, but never a means; be guided in professional activities and communication by the “golden rule” of morality: treat people, your comrades, co-workers the way you would like them to treat you.

To explain the moral principles of the Law of the Russian Federation No. 1026-1 “On the Police”, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the text of this document and make main excerpts from it.

It is worth noting that Article 1 of the Law “On the Police” reveals such an important concept as the police in the Russian Federation.

The police in the Russian Federation is a system of state executive authorities designed to protect the life, health, rights and freedoms of citizens, property, interests of society and the state from criminal and other unlawful attacks and are entitled to use coercive measures within the limits established by this Law and other federal laws .

Thus, Article 1 of this law reveals the most important, fundamental principle that pursues moral goals and ideas aimed at protecting the interests of citizens and the state.

It is also necessary to note Article 3 of this law, which reveals the basic principles of police activity, namely: police activity is built in accordance with the principles of respect for the rights and freedoms of man and citizen, legality, humanism, and transparency.

Also, most fully, the moral principles and principles of police activity are reflected in Article 5 of this Law:

The police protect the rights and freedoms of humans and citizens, regardless of gender, race, nationality, language, origin, property and official status, place of residence, attitude to religion, beliefs, membership of public associations, as well as other circumstances.
- The police are prohibited from resorting to torture, violence, or other cruel or degrading treatment.
- Any restriction of citizens in their rights and freedoms by the police is permissible only on the grounds and in the manner directly provided for by law.
- In all cases of restriction of the rights and freedoms of a citizen, a police officer is obliged to explain to him the basis and reason for such restriction, as well as his rights and obligations arising in connection with this.
- The police provide the opportunity for detained persons to exercise their statutory right to legal assistance; informs, at their request (and in the case of the detention of minors - without fail) about the detention to their relatives, the administration at the place of work or study; if necessary, takes measures to provide them with pre-medical assistance, as well as to eliminate the danger to someone’s life, health or property that has arisen as a result of the detention of these persons.
- The police do not have the right to collect, store, use and disseminate information about the private life of a person without his consent, except in cases provided for by federal law.
- The police are obliged to provide a person with the opportunity to familiarize themselves with documents and materials that directly affect his rights and freedoms, unless otherwise provided by federal law.

Thus, articles 1 to 5 adequately reveal the moral principles of this Law and inform about the direct purpose of the police in the Russian Federation.

Scientific professional ethics

There are a number of concepts related to the concept of “ethics”, of a more specific kind, such as: “scientific ethics”, “religious ethics”, “professional ethics”. The concept of “scientific ethics” has many meanings. This concept usually refers to a person’s desire to rely in his moral activity on a deeper, scientific knowledge of reality. And one can and should agree with this meaning of the concept of “scientific ethics”. However, the “scientificness” itself in ethics is different than in the natural sciences. “Scientificity” in ethics does not take a strictly formalized, deductive or mathematical form, nor is it strictly substantiated through experience; the inductive method also has its limits here.

L.N. expressed himself wonderfully about this property of ethical knowledge. Tolstoy. He wrote: “In the moral sphere, one amazing, too little noticed phenomenon occurs.

If I tell a person who did not know this what I know from geology, astronomy, history, physics, mathematics, this person will receive completely new information and will never say to me: “What’s new here? Everyone knows this, and I have known this for a long time.” But tell a person the highest, most clear, concise way, in a way that it has never been expressed, expressed moral truth - every ordinary person, especially one who is not interested in moral issues, or even more so one to whom this moral truth expressed by you , not according to wool, will certainly say: “Who doesn’t know this? This has been known and said for a long time.” It really seems to him that this was a long time ago and that’s exactly what was said. Only those for whom moral truths are important and dear know how important, precious, and with what long labor the clarification and simplification of moral truth is achieved - its transition from a vague, vague conscious assumption, desire, from vague, incoherent expressions into a firm and definite expression, inevitably requiring actions that correspond to it.”

The concept of “scientific ethics” is often associated with some special concept of morality based on a specific science. Such ethics are considered to be based on scientifically verified facts and use scientific methodology.

An example of such “scientific ethics” can be “naturalistic ethics”, “built” on natural facts, such as: human instincts, his natural desire for pleasure, his irrational will to life, to power. Such ethics was the ethics of social Darwinists, whose representatives were C. Darwin, P.A. Kropotkin et al.

P.A. Kropotkin noted in his book “Ethics” that “the very concepts of good and evil and our conclusions about the “Highest Good” are borrowed from the life of nature.” There is an instinctive struggle between species and an instinctive mutual assistance among species, which appears to be the basis of morality. The instinct of mutual sympathy is most fully manifested in social animals and humans. Modern biology, in particular ethology, has significantly expanded human understanding of animal behavior. However, she retained the idea of natural moral factors, often exaggerating their role. Examples here are the concepts of K. Lorenz, V.P. Efroimson, G. Selye and others.

Marxist ethics also considered itself scientific, which derived morality from objective social relations and considered it as a specific form of consciousness or a special way of mastering reality, which has a class basis. Specific scientific ethics is developed by neopositivism, which believes that the subject of scientific ethics can only be the language of morality and ethics, and not morality itself. This type of ethics is called “metaethics.”

There are also objections to the concepts of “scientific ethics”. The most serious criticism is presented by emotivism as one of the directions of neopositivist moral theory. The main argument of emotivism concerns the essence of moral value judgments. Here it is argued that all value judgments are prescriptions and not descriptions, i.e. they express our subjective attitudes or emotions, rather than denoting something objective. However, this point of view does not explain the possibility of moral argumentation and debate - then they simply become meaningless, because all judgments are equivalent. Entire layers of existence, such as the natural and social spheres, turn out to be “depreciated.”

Ethical teachings that defend the thesis about the descriptiveness of value judgments, i.e. that they describe something objective in morality appears more plausible. They explain more moral phenomena and should be given preference. Emotivism leads to relativism and nihilism as ethical teachings that assert that in the sphere of morality everything is relative, and that there are no absolute, universal values of good.

So, the concept of “scientific ethics” is not empty or meaningless. Ethics can and should include scientific facts, methods, theories, although their capabilities are limited here. In ethics, the role of feelings, prescriptive judgments, and self-esteem is great.

Features of professional ethics

The name "professional ethics" speaks for itself. It deals with practices designed to solve moral problems that arise in a particular profession. Here we can distinguish three circles of such problems. The first is associated with the need to specify universal moral norms in relation to the conditions of professional activity. For example, the status of a military man or law enforcement officer implies their right to use violence, which cannot be unlimited. In the same way, a journalist who has access to socially dangerous information has the right to hide or distort it, but to what extent is this right acceptable from the point of view of the public good and how can abuse be avoided? This type of ethics is intended to develop the measure and scope of such deviations from generally accepted ideas about morality. Secondly, it considers the requirements that exist within the profession and bind their bearers with special, business relationships. Thirdly, she discusses the correspondence between the values of the profession and the interests of society itself, and from this perspective she addresses the problems of the relationship between social responsibility and professional duty.

Researchers note that professional ethics is the most ancient of all three areas. It is traditionally believed that the first set of professional rules was compiled by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (460-370 BC), with whom medicine was identified as a separate science. In fairness, it should be noted that he did not formulate the doctor’s oath, but rather summarized the various vows that were given by the Greek priests of the god of healing Asclepius. This oath became the prototype of numerous codes of doctors existing in different countries. Further, the history of professional ethics can be traced as unifying documents, charters and oaths of various corporations. Thus, trade unions were quite strong in Ancient Rome. In the Middle Ages, the charters and codes of craft guilds, monastic communities, and knightly orders attracted attention. The latter are perhaps the most revealing in this regard, since they emphasize the exceptional, divine significance of their ministry. It is no coincidence that the authorship of the charter and oath of the very first knightly order of the Templars (1118) belongs to the famous medieval philosopher Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153). However, the massive dissemination of codes of professional ethics began in the second half of the 20th century, when professionalism began to be considered one of the highest values of social practice. Accordingly, theoretical reflection on this phenomenon appeared.

What are the most important features of professional ethics? Firstly, it is expressed in the form of requirements addressed to representatives of the given profession. From this follows its normative image, enshrined in the form of beautifully formulated codes and declarations. As a rule, they are small documents containing a call to live up to the high calling of the profession. The appearance of these documents indicates that members of the profession began to perceive themselves as a single community pursuing certain goals and meeting high social standards.

Secondly, documents on professional ethics are filled with the conviction that the values professed by them are completely obvious and follow from a simple analysis of the activities of the most prominent representatives of this type of activity. It cannot be otherwise, for the codes themselves are designed in the style of a message to people who have been given the great honor of engaging in such significant public service. From here we can often read about the principles of responsibility, objectivity, high competence, openness to criticism, goodwill, philanthropy, caring, and the need for constant improvement of professional skills. Nowhere is a decoding of these values given, because it seems that they are intuitively clear to every member of society. In addition to them, you can always find references to what is professional evil, and cannot in any way be tolerable from the point of view of the specified values. For example, refusal to provide assistance, use of official position, failure to maintain professional secrecy, substitution of personal opinion for competence, etc.

Another important feature of the professional understanding of morality is connected with the previous circumstance. This style of ethics gives the highest status to the activities it regulates. The profession whose values it is called upon to protect - doctor, scientist, teacher, lawyer - is recognized as the most exalted of all existing ones, and its representatives themselves are recognized as the elite of society. Thus, in the already mentioned numerous codes of conduct for doctors, the idea was traced that they are called upon not only to fight death, but also know the secrets of a healthy lifestyle. In some particularly radical cases, a profession is recognized as a standard of morality, because it corresponds to the model of sacrifice, selflessness and contributes to the prosperity of society.

The next feature of professional ethics concerns the problem of the nature of regulation of activities and the authority behind it. Of course, the professional community itself is considered an authority, and the most respected representatives who will be given such high trust can speak on its behalf. From this context, it becomes clear that both the investigation and the sanctions are also a matter for the community itself. His trial and sentence are the decision of a panel of professionals against those who misunderstood their high destiny, used their status to harm the community and thereby excluded themselves from it. Based on these attitudes, it is impossible to imagine that ethical control is carried out by outside observers. As you know, the professional environment is extremely sensitive to all forms of external regulation.

The nature of the sanctions provided for by professional ethics also follows from ideas about the special status of this type of activity. If a person occupies such a high position in society, then the requirements for him should be the highest. Almost no code of professional ethics is complete without specifying the sanctions applied to violators. The profession is proud of its social significance, so it is ready to exclude apostates from its sphere. As a rule, sanctions are ranged: from issuing a reprimand on behalf of the board of authorized persons to deprivation of professional status. Be sure to mention in the sanctions section other measures of influence, in addition to ethical ones - legislative or administrative. This once again emphasizes the social role of the profession and the interest of society itself in its development. Accordingly, the codes must contain a list of possible violations. And just as in the case of the main value guidelines of professionalism, their meaning should be intuitively clear to a representative of each specific occupation.

Based on all that has been said, the tasks of professional ethics become obvious. For the community behind it, it is important not to lose its status, to prove its social significance, to respond to the challenges of rapidly changing conditions, to strengthen its own cohesion, to develop common standards for joint activities and to protect itself from the claims of other areas of professional competence. In this regard, it is worth noting that nowadays the greatest activity in this area is mainly among young professions, for which it is very important to prove their right to exist.

However, this type of ethical theory and practice has some disadvantages. At first glance, one can note its closed, narrow character, reliance only on its own authority when making moral assessments, which results in unfounded ambitions when resolving acute conflict situations. The professional environment is a fundamentally conservative element; traditions and foundations play a huge role in it. This is good when it comes to continuity and development, for example, of scientific schools, but in the modern world is it enough to build ethical regulation only on traditions and foundations? In addition, moral consciousness cannot agree that professionalism is considered the main value of any social practice. If in a specific area of activity there is a need to discuss emerging moral problems, this means that ordinary ideas about professional duty are not enough for its normal functioning. The relationship between professionalism and morality is one of the most popular topics in the philosophy of the 20th century. As a result of reflection, we can recognize the idea that in comparison with eternal moral values, the essence of professionalism cannot be considered obvious and unchangeable.

Types of professional ethics

Different types of professional ethics have their own traditions. This indicates the continuity of the basic ethical standards developed by representatives of a particular profession over the centuries. These are, first of all, those universal moral norms in the sphere of labor that humanity has preserved and carried through various social formations, although often in modified form.

So, each type of professional ethics is determined by the uniqueness of the profession and the requirements for it from society. But, as we have already noted, society places increased moral demands on certain types of activities. First of all, these are requirements for specialists who have the right to manage the life and health of people associated with a variety of services; upbringing, training and education. The activities of people in these professions, more than any other, do not lend themselves to clear and comprehensive regulation and do not fit within the framework of official instructions and standards. And moral responsibility and moral choice are of decisive importance in the process of carrying out their professional duties. Society views the moral qualities of these specialists as structural components of their professional suitability.

In medical ethics, all norms and moral principles of the profession are focused on improving and maintaining human health. Even in ancient India, it was believed that a doctor “must have a pure, compassionate heart, a calm temperament, be distinguished by the greatest confidence and chastity, and a constant desire to do good.” These qualities are also required from modern doctors, and the principle of their professional activity “do no harm” was, is and will be fundamental at all times. However, in the work of doctors, situations of moral contradiction often occur. Thus, for the sake of maintaining confidence in their abilities, they have the moral right to embellish the real state of affairs, because in some situations the main thing is not the formal fulfillment of one or another specific moral norm, but the preservation of the highest value - human life. In addition, advances in science pose moral problems for medical specialists in new conditions, for example, moral issues related to organ transplantation. A special moral problem that has long existed in medical practice is euthanasia - the painless bringing of a hopelessly ill person to death.

Pedagogical ethics studies the specifics and content of the moral activity of a teacher, clarifies the features of the implementation of general principles of morality in the field of pedagogical work. The ethics of a teacher, like the ethics of a doctor, also has ancient roots. Already in Ancient Greece, teachers were required to have love for children, deep knowledge of their subject, restraint, and fairness in punishments and rewards. The specificity of pedagogical morality is due to the fact that the “object” of the teacher’s activity is the child’s personality, the process of development and formation of which is associated with a large number of contradictions, moral dilemmas and conflicts. At the same time, representatives of this profession always feel a special responsibility to society. Therefore, it is very difficult for them to implement moral principles in their relationships with children, their parents, and also with their colleagues.

The process of educating and training the younger generation requires from the teacher not only high qualifications, but also a whole set of moral qualities that become professionally significant for creating favorable relationships in the pedagogical process. These are humanity, kindness, tolerance, decency, honesty, responsibility, fairness, commitment, restraint. The moral requirements for teachers and the norms arising from them, developed and consolidated in the course of the development of social thought, form the basis of the code of pedagogical morality. It contains requirements that are universal in nature, as well as those that are identified by new tasks currently facing pedagogical science and practice.

Judicial ethics studies the moral content of existing procedural principles and norms, the features of the operation of general moral principles in the field of justice. It substantiates the content of the professional duty of a judge, develops moral requirements that a specialist in this profession must follow. First of all, he must have such qualities as honesty, justice, objectivity, humanism, restraint, loyalty to the spirit and letter of the law, integrity, and dignity.

The ethics of service professionals “adapts” the already known principles of moral consciousness to the specifics of this activity, which is associated with the culture of communication, with politeness and consideration in relations with clients, with the need to ensure the satisfaction of the growing demands and needs of people. For example, a tourism worker must be an erudite, widely educated person. After all, tourism services are the action of a certain consumer value, which is expressed in a beneficial effect that satisfies one or another human need. For example, the human need to understand the world around us, i.e. to comprehend something, to obtain new information, to learn something more fully.

The ethics of a scientist formulate such moral characteristics of an individual as scientific integrity, honesty, civil courage, democracy, patriotism, and responsibility. The morality of scientific activity requires upholding the truth and seeking to use scientific achievements in the interests of humanity. She denies the desire to falsify the results of laboratory research, to embellish facts to prove one or another theoretical position.

In recent years, problems of professional ethics have been actively developed, which justifies:

1) principles and norms of moral behavior of leaders at different levels - ethics of a leader;
2) the relationship of subordinates to their superiors;
3) formal and informal interactions between employees. As a result, official morality can be identified as an element of the moral culture of managers and subordinates, complementing specific relationships within the framework of the performance of professional duties.

2.3.1. Professional ethics as a type of applied ethics Professional ethics is a term used to refer to:

Systems of professional moral standards (for example, “professional ethics of a lawyer”)
Directions for ethical research regarding the grounds of professional activity

A profession is a certain type of work activity that requires the necessary knowledge and skills acquired as a result of training and long-term work practice. Professionalism is considered as a moral personality trait .

Professional ethics is understood as a set of norms, principles, ideals, as well as forms of practical behavior and mechanisms that facilitate their transmission (rituals, customs, ceremonies, traditions, etc.).

Professional ethics regulates the moral relations of people in the labor sphere and ensures the moral prestige of professional groups in society.

The tasks of professional ethics include identifying moral norms and assessments, judgments and concepts that characterize people in the role of representatives of a certain profession. Professional ethics develops norms, standards, and requirements specific to certain types of activities.

The term “ethics” is used here in the sense of “morality”; most likely, this usage is associated with the specifics of the formation of professional morality and the fact that from the early stages of its formation, many norms were recorded in writing, introduced into law, and supported through various professional regulations. The norms within professional moral codes are divided into two distinct groups: - norms and principles that determine communication and relationships within the profession; - norms that determine the relations of representatives of the profession with the rest of the population. Moral standards, and subsequently the codes of such social institutions as the army, church, medicine, etc. . These norms united people whose activities could no longer be defined only as a profession by common moral requirements. The ongoing differentiation of professional moral standards has led to the fact that there are practically no professions left that do not have special moral requirements within the framework of their activities. The process is based, first of all, on the deepening cooperation of labor in all spheres of human activity. Thus, everyone becomes increasingly dependent on the results of everyone’s work. The content of professional ethics is codes of conduct that prescribe a certain type of moral relationships between people and ways to justify these codes.

Professional ethics studies:

Relations between work collectives and each specialist individually;

Moral qualities and personality of a specialist that ensure the best performance of professional duty;

Relationships within professional teams, and those specific moral norms characteristic of a given profession;
- features of professional education.
Professional ethics is not a consequence of inequality in the degree of morality of different professional groups. It’s just that society has increased moral requirements for certain types of professional activities.

Basically, these are professional areas in which the labor process itself requires coordination of the actions of all its participants. Particular attention is paid to the moral qualities of workers in that field that are associated with the right to manage people’s lives; here we are talking not only about the level of morality, but also, first of all, about the proper performance of their professional duties.

These are professions from the service sectors, transport, management, healthcare, and education. The labor activity of people in these professions, more than any other, does not lend itself to preliminary regulation and does not fit within the framework of official instructions. It is inherently creative.

The peculiarities of the work of these professional groups complicate moral relations and a new element is added to them: interaction with people - the objects of activity. This is where moral responsibility becomes crucial. Society considers the moral qualities of an employee as one of the leading elements of his professional suitability.

General moral norms must be specified in a person’s work activity, taking into account the specifics of his profession.
Each type of human activity - scientific, pedagogical, artistic, etc. - corresponds to certain types of professional ethics.

Types of professional ethics

Professional types of ethics are those specific features of professional activity that are aimed directly at a person in certain conditions of his life and activity in society and relate only to those types of professional activity in which there is various kinds of dependence of people on the actions of a professional, that is, consequences or the processes of these actions have a special impact on the lives and destinies of other people or humanity.

In this regard, traditional types of professional ethics are distinguished, such as pedagogical, medical, legal, scientist ethics, and relatively new ones, the emergence or actualization of which is associated with the increasing role of the “human factor” in this type of activity (engineering ethics) or the strengthening of its influence in society (journalistic ethics, bioethics).

a) professional solidarity (sometimes degenerating into corporatism);
b) a special understanding of duty and honor;

c) a special form of responsibility determined by the subject and type of activity.

Particular principles arise from specific conditions, content and specifics of a particular profession and are expressed mainly in moral codes - requirements in relation to specialists.

Professionalism and attitude to work are important qualitative characteristics of a person’s moral character. They are of paramount importance in the personal assessment of an individual.

Particular attention is paid to the moral qualities of workers in those professions that involve the right to control people’s lives, significant material assets, some professions in the service sector, transport, management, healthcare, education, and so on. Here we are not talking about the actual level of morality, but about an obligation, which, if left unrealized, can in any way interfere with the performance of professional functions.

Medical ethics set out in the “Code of Ethics of the Russian Doctor”, adopted in 1994 by the Association of Russian Doctors. Earlier, in 1971, the oath of the doctor of the Soviet Union was created. The idea of a high moral character and example of ethical behavior of a doctor is associated with the name of Hippocrates. Traditional medical ethics resolves the issue of personal contact and personal qualities of the relationship between the doctor and the patient, as well as the doctor’s guarantees not to harm a specific individual.

Biomedical ethics(bioethics) is a specific form of modern professional ethics of a doctor, it is a system of knowledge about the permissible limits of manipulating the life and death of a person. Manipulation must be regulated morally. Bioethics is a form of protection of human biological life. The main problem of bioethics: suicide, euthanasia, definition of death, transplantology, experimentation on animals and humans, the relationship between doctor and patient, attitude towards mentally disabled people, hospice organization, childbirth (genetic engineering, artificial insemination, surrogate motherhood, abortion, contraception) . The goal of bioethics is to develop appropriate regulations for modern biomedical activities. In 1998, under the Moscow Patriarchate, with the blessing of His Holiness Patriarch Alexy II, the Council on Biomedical Ethics was created. It included famous theologians, clergy, doctors, scientists, and lawyers.

Professional morality in journalism began to take shape along with journalistic activities. However, the process of its formation lasted for centuries and reached certainty only with the transformation of the journalistic profession into a mass one. It ended only at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when the first codes were created and the professional and moral consciousness of the journalistic community acquired a documented form of existence. A journalist, mastering the postulates of professional morality during his professional development, enters into professional and moral relationships with colleagues, which, unlike moral ones as such, presuppose the possibility of institutionally organized and direct intervention of the corporation in his behavior. However, this intervention differs significantly from administrative influence, since its goal is not coercion, but motivation.

The professional ethics of a journalist, like other types of professional ethics, began to take shape directly in their work activities. It manifested itself in the course of codifying those professional and moral ideas that spontaneously developed within the framework of the method of journalistic activity and were, in one way or another, recorded by the professional consciousness of the journalistic community. The appearance of the first codes meant the completion of a long process of formation of professional journalistic morality and at the same time opened a new stage in its development. This new stage was based on targeted self-knowledge of journalistic activity and the practical application of its results.

A special manifestation of professional ethics is economic ethics(“business ethics”, “business ethics”). Economic ethics is an ancient science. It began with Aristotle in his works “Ethics”, “Nicomachean Ethics”, “Politics”. Aristotle does not separate economics from economic ethics. He advises his son Nicomachus to engage only in the production of goods. Its principles were developed in the ideas and concepts of Catholic and Protestant theologians, who for a long time pondered intensely on the problems of business ethics. One of the first ethical-economic concepts was that of Henry Ford, one of the founders of the US automobile industry. He believed that happiness and prosperity can only be achieved by honest work and that this is ethical common sense, the essence of Ford's economic ethics lies in the idea that the product produced is not just a realized “business theory”, but “something more” - a theory, a goal which to create a source of joy from the world of things. Power and machinery, money and property are useful only insofar as they contribute to the freedom of life. These economic principles of G. Ford are of practical importance even today.

Economic ethics is a set of norms of behavior for an entrepreneur, the requirements imposed by a cultural society on his style of work, the nature of communication between business participants, and their social appearance. Economic ethics includes business etiquette, which is formed under the influence of traditions and certain prevailing historical conditions of a particular country. The main postulates of the entrepreneur's ethical code are the following: he is convinced of the usefulness of his work not only for himself, but also for others, for society as a whole; proceeds from the fact that the people around him want and know how to work; believes in business and regards it as attractive creativity; recognizes the need for competition, but also understands the need for cooperation; respects any property, social movements, respects professionalism and competence, laws; values education, science and technology. These basic principles of ethics for a business person can be specified in relation to various areas of his professional activity. For Russia, problems of economic ethics are becoming of great importance. This is explained by the rapid formation of market relations in our country.

IN legal activity The main problem is the relationship between legality and justice. The conservatism of legislation and the complexity of the relations it regulates can create situations in which some versions of the verdict, formally corresponding to the letter of the law, will contradict it in spirit and will be unfair. For the legal profession, justice is the main postulate, the goal of activity.

The lawyer's strict obedience to the law promotes his independence. Both judges and prosecutors, within the limits of their competence, exercise their powers independently of state authorities and administration, public and political organizations, and movements. A judge, prosecutor, investigator does not have the right to yield to local influences, or to be guided by the advice, instructions or requests of individuals or institutions. The principle of independence and subordination only to the law dictates important moral requirements. A lawyer (judge, prosecutor, lawyer, etc.) is a specialist who is driven solely by a sense of duty, should not allow compromises, deals with conscience, or succumb to any influence, he should serve only the law and justice.

The work of a lawyer is directly related to the protection of human dignity. Therefore, moral standards based on recognition of the value of a person as an individual are integral components of a lawyer’s professional ethics. It is important to resist deformation, spiritual callousness, and transformation into a kind of cog in legal proceedings. This approach requires high personal qualities from a legal worker, but it is precisely this approach that fills justice and legal activity with humanistic content.

The specifics of a lawyer’s work involve special moral situations that are not encountered among representatives of other professions. For example, in the operational work of the criminal police, secrecy (secrecy), disinformation (lies) or pretense (moral disguise) in relation to criminals is allowed. As for the legal process, a lawyer who has learned from the defendant that it was he who committed the crime, despite the fact that the defendant falsely insists on his innocence at trial, does not have the right to act as a witness against him. These examples are a typical conflict within the framework of the general and the specific in morality. Therefore, it should be noted once again that such moral specificity of the profession does not contradict the general principles of morality, but is their addition and specification in relation to the conditions of legal activity. This is also important to emphasize because legal professionals, who are constantly faced with negative manifestations of human nature, must have a moral justification for their professional choice, a kind of moral “immunity.”

Actual violations of moral standards in the legal environment, as a rule, cause a huge public outcry. And this is natural - the increased moral requirements for employees of the legal profession on and off duty (for example, the Code of Honor of Judges of the Russian Federation of 1993) are explained by the special trust in them from society and the responsible nature of the functions they perform. People who decide the fate of others and demand that they comply with the law must have not only an official, but also a moral right to do so.

Entrepreneur Ethics in modern scientific literature coincides with the concepts of “business ethics”, “economic ethics”, “business ethics”, “market ethics”, etc. First of all, this is a set of norms of behavior for an entrepreneur in negotiations, during communication, drawing up documentation, etc. etc., reflecting the specifics of its activities, and also often determined by the historical conditions of a particular country.

To develop entrepreneurial ethics, certain conditions are needed: political and economic freedom, stability of legislation, the presence of traditions, etc.

Business ethics is already formed within the framework of the “economic cell” - the work collective. Service relationships should be built on partnership, based on mutual requests and needs, and on the interests of the business. Such cooperation undoubtedly increases labor and creative activity and is an important factor in the technological process of production and business.

When interacting with other “cells” these rules are preserved. Respect for a business partner does not allow you to manipulate him in your own interests or suppress him. Honesty increases the degree of trust and mutual understanding between partners. A conscientious attitude towards one's responsibilities contributes to the implementation of planned plans. This lays the foundations for long-term mutually beneficial cooperation.

Currently, a certain procedure for behavior in business and during business contacts has been developed, the so-called business etiquette. It helps to avoid mistakes or smooth them out in accessible, generally accepted ways. Therefore, the main function or meaning of business person etiquette can be defined as the formation of such rules of conduct in the business community that promote mutual understanding between people in the process of communication.

Etiquette is one of the main “tools” for creating an image. In modern business, the face of the company plays a significant role. Those companies in which etiquette is not observed lose a lot. Where it exists, productivity is higher and results are better. It is more convenient to work with such a company, i.e. etiquette creates a comfortable psychological climate conducive to business contacts.

For Russia, problems of economic ethics are of particular importance. They are greatly influenced by the complex nature of the formation of market relations, ambiguous historical traditions and a wide range of manifestations of mass consciousness. Entrepreneurs in Russia should remember that personal enrichment is not a criterion of a person’s moral attitude towards work, and profit is not the goal of personal development.

Social work ethics- this is a manifestation of general moral standards in social services. In the professional activities of such specialists, which consist in providing assistance to individuals, families, social groups or communities, moral and ethical standards play a special role. They are reflected in the professional and ethical code of social workers in Russia.

The basic principles of professional ethics of a social worker include: responsibility to the client, responsibility to the profession and colleagues, responsibility to society.

The requirements for the personal and moral qualities of a social worker are also dictated by the specifics of his work. He must have developed feelings of duty, goodness and justice, self-dignity and respect for the dignity of another person; tolerance, politeness, decency, emotional stability; personal adequacy to self-esteem, level of aspirations and social adaptation. It is also important to have certain teaching skills. Compliance by social work specialists with ethical standards prevents the negative consequences of social services.

You can also talk about the etiquette of a social worker. It includes: a) communication skills, international standards of behavior for social workers; b) the established procedure for the behavior of social service workers when meeting and introducing themselves, treating colleagues and clients; c) the art of conversation, telephone conversations, negotiations, business correspondence, etiquette for protocol events at national and international conferences, symposiums; d) norms of behavior on the street, in the community, in the client’s family, at the client’s work, in public transport, in public associations, churches, etc.

Management ethics- a science that examines the actions and behavior of a person acting in the field of management, and the functioning of an organization as a “total 18 manager” in relation to its internal and external environment in the aspect in which the actions of the manager and the organization correlate with universal ethical requirements.

Currently, the basic principles and rules of business conduct are formulated in ethical codes. These may be standards by which individual firms live (corporate codes), or rules governing relationships within an entire industry (professional codes). 2.3.3. Basic principles of professional ethics Professional ethics regulates the relationships between people in business communication. Professional ethics is based on certain norms, requirements and principles.

Principles are abstract, generalized ideas that enable those who rely on them to correctly form their behavior and actions in the business sphere. The principles provide a specific employee in any organization with a conceptual ethical platform for decisions, actions, actions, interactions, etc. The order of the ethical principles considered is not determined by their significance.

Essence first principle comes from the so-called gold standard: “Within the framework of your official position, never allow such actions towards your subordinates, management, colleagues, clients, etc., that you would not want to see towards yourself.”

Second principle: Fairness is needed when providing employees with the resources necessary for their work activities (monetary, raw materials, material, etc.).

Third principle requires mandatory correction of an ethical violation, regardless of when and by whom it was committed.

Fourth principle– the principle of maximum progress: the official behavior and actions of an employee are recognized as ethical if they contribute to the development of the organization (or its divisions) from a moral point of view.

Fifth principle– the principle of minimum progress, according to which the actions of an employee or organization as a whole are ethical if they at least do not violate ethical standards.

Sixth principle: ethical is the tolerant attitude of the organization’s employees towards moral principles, traditions, etc., that take place in other organizations, regions, countries.

Eighth principle: individual and collective principles are equally recognized as the basis when developing and making decisions in business relations.

Ninth principle: You should not be afraid to have your own opinion when resolving any official issues. However, nonconformism as a personality trait should manifest itself within reasonable limits.

Tenth principle - no violence, i.e., “pressure” on subordinates, expressed in various forms, for example, in an orderly, commanding manner of conducting an official conversation.

Eleventh principle - constancy of impact, expressed in the fact that ethical standards can be introduced into the life of an organization not with a one-time order, but only with the help of continuous efforts on the part of both the manager and ordinary employees.

Twelfth principle - when influencing (on a team, an individual employee, on a consumer, etc.), take into account the strength of possible resistance. The fact is that while recognizing the value and necessity of ethical standards in theory, many workers, when faced with them in practical everyday work, for one reason or another begin to resist them.

Thirteenth principle consists in the advisability of making advances based on trust - the employee’s sense of responsibility, his competence, his sense of duty.

Fourteenth principle strongly recommends striving for non-conflict. Although conflict in the business sphere has not only dysfunctional but also functional consequences, nevertheless, conflict is a fertile ground for ethical violations.

Fifteenth principle– freedom that does not limit the freedom of others; Usually this principle, although in an implicit form, is determined by job descriptions.

Sixteenth principle: The employee must not only act ethically himself, but also encourage his colleagues to do the same.

Seventeenth principle: Don't criticize your competitor. This means not only a competing organization, but also an “internal competitor” - a team from another department, a colleague in whom one can “see” a competitor. These principles should serve as the basis for each employee of any company to develop their own personal ethical system. The content of companies' ethical codes originates from the principles of ethics.

The requirements of professional ethics are becoming increasingly complex. Society cannot rely only on traditional mechanisms for assimilating them. Therefore, the practice of professional ethical education includes: - the creation of ethical associations; - the practice of various instructions and memos, which draw attention to possible deviations from ethical standards, is widespread. 2.3.4. Service ethics Office ethics is the broadest concept in the field of professional ethics. Office ethics is understood as a set of the most general norms, rules and principles of human behavior in the sphere of his professional, production and service activities. . Every person who starts working must comply with these standards. The number of these norms is small. The overwhelming majority of them are formulated in an extremely general form, in order to be detailed in relation to specific types of activities. Requirements of professional ethics:1. Discipline; 2. Saving material resources provided to the employee to carry out production activities; 3. Correctness of interpersonal relationships. A person in the sphere of his work activity must behave in such a way that interpersonal conflicts arise as little as possible, and that other people feel comfortable working next to him in direct and indirect interpersonal contact. All these requirements are divided into two subgroups: The first group: includes requirements in interpersonal contacts along the vertical (subordinate - manager). Here the main requirement for a subordinate is recognition of the manager’s very right to give orders, which includes the functional responsibilities assumed by a person under an employment contract. The subordinate must, based on these duties, structure his behavior accordingly and not use various forms of evasion of orders. Evasion can be open, public, with certain conditions imposed on the leader. It can be hidden, take on the nature of a secret (with the help of facial expressions, gestures, individual words) provoking the manager into open actions against a subordinate. In these situations, the subordinate may often appear to those around him as the suffering party, and the manager’s reaction to him may be inadequate. One of the reasons for such behavior of subordinates may be the desire to acquire certain social capital, to look persecuted, to acquire the status of an informal leader, to achieve some benefits for themselves, etc. 2.3.5. Management Ethics Management ethics is the second largest concept after service ethics. This is a set of norms, rules, principles, ideals that determine the behavior of people in the sphere of exercising power and administrative powers, i.e. in the field of management. All norms of management ethics can be divided into two groups: norms associated with the decision-making process and norms regulating the process of communication with subordinates and other managers (horizontally and vertically). The rules governing the decision-making process can be divided into three subgroups: A. Rules governing the process of raising a problem and preparing a solution. Responsibility must pervade all decisions of a leader. The peculiarity of moral consequences is that they can change their meaning from a positive initial result to a negative one later and vice versa. In a broad sense, a leader needs such qualities as professionalism, competence, confidence in his competence, will, organizational skills and a general set of leader qualities: self-confidence, the ability to captivate people, the ability to “ignite” interest in the business, etc. But any of these qualities, presented in excess, can turn into its opposite. Thus, the will to achieve a goal turns into the imposition of one’s desires, confidence in one’s competence turns into belief in one’s infallibility. Belief in infallibility, combined with excess will, gives rise to a specific type of leader who always feels he is right and strives under any conditions and, regardless of the possible consequences, to insist on his own at all costs. At the first stage of preparing management decisions, a contradiction often arises between knowledge about the need for specific changes and ignorance of specific ways, methods and means of these changes, ignorance of the functioning mechanism of the object that needs to be managed. It is necessary to clearly understand the fact that any management problem that arises has at least two, and more often, many possible solutions. Solutions differ: · Duration of achieving the desired result; · Material costs; · Amount of funds and structures involved; · Features of satisfying the palette of interests of various people, social groups, organizations, political forces interested in this decision. B. Rules governing the process of discussion and decision making. At the stage of discussion and decision-making, the leader should strive to ensure that, if possible, representatives of all groups, segments of the population, all those whose interests may be affected by the decision taken, take part in the discussion. It is necessary that the most complete examination data and statistical data on possible solution options be presented for discussion. If during the discussion it becomes obvious that the leader's preferred solution option is less satisfying the interests of various groups than another, the leader leading the discussion must have the courage to give up his opinion in favor of the majority, and not insist on the wrong solution option that he chose exactly him. C. Execution and control over the execution of the decision. There is a point of view that the execution of a decision is a purely administrative process, which includes formalizing the decision, identifying executors, bringing the assigned tasks to their attention, drawing up a plan for implementing the decision, etc. In fact, the main thing in the execution of a decision is that at the moment of its execution, a decision made in relation to any organization (system) can introduce this system into a state of instability. The main responsibility of the manager in the process of monitoring the implementation of the decision is to monitor the state of the system to detect signs of instability. If such signs appear, it is necessary to either stop the process of executing the decision or take some corrective action.

2.3.6. Stages of formation and development of professional morality

The specificity of the formation of professional morality is characterized by the fact that from the early stages of its formation, many norms were recorded in writing, introduced into law, and supported through various professional regulations.

The formation of professional ethics standards dates back to the period of early slave society, when the first relatively mass professions began to take shape.

In early written sources there is evidence that more than 4,000 years ago people realized the need for certain moral prohibitions in a number of professions, and that the professions themselves, or rather belonging to them, can form in people a number of both positive and negative moral qualities .

However, a long time passed before the first prototypes of future professional moral codes began to take shape in the slave society of Ancient Greece.

First stage. Perhaps the first oath of allegiance to the profession appeared among people called to serve man. The promise-oath that was given in Ancient Greece by doctors graduating from the so-called school of Asclepiads said: “I will, to the best of my ability and understanding, arrange the lifestyle of the sick for their benefit, and I will protect them from all harm and vice. Whatever happens to be seen and heard during my medical activity, I will remain silent, and consider as a secret that which is not subject to disclosure.”

The provisions developed by the Asclepiad school echoed the ideas of the famous Hippocratic Oath, which has not lost its significance to this day.

Professional morality initially develops among professions whose representatives directly interact with people in the performance of their professional duties: doctors, teachers, educators, politicians, scribes, priests, temple servants, etc. In these contacts, they could influence the physical and moral state of people, cause them harm, and destabilize the social situation.

The number of norms in the first professional codes was small. They touched upon the most general aspects of professional activity, many of them were descriptive in nature and did not reach the degree of general abstraction, as was the case in later periods of the development of professional moral norms.

Second stage in the development of professional morality begins in the late Middle Ages, there were several reasons for this.

First of all, the strengthening of statehood and the formation of norms of absolutist power, which predetermined the formation and strengthening of such social institutions as the army, church, and civil service. Secondly, the rapid growth of cities in medieval Europe, which gave rise to the separation of professions serving the population and made people dependent on each other’s labor.

A new stage in the development of professional morality was marked by the formation of several trends:

The range of professions for which moral requirements were formed has expanded significantly, mainly due to professions that came into contact with the population not directly, but through the result of their work. Vivid evidence of this process are the codes of craft workshops (statutes), which included requirements for the fulfillment of certain moral obligations.

Secondly, the norms within professional moral codes began to be divided into two distinct groups: norms and principles that determine communication and relationships within the profession and norms that determine the relations of representatives of the profession with the rest of the population. This division was caused by the fact that by this time people had appreciated the extent to which the assessment and recognition of their work depended on the characteristics of the work, behavior and attitude towards the profession of their colleagues in the craft.

This is due to the fact that in Western Europe at that time cities and trade were rapidly developing, so when people bought a product, they least of all thought about the identity of the person who made this product.

First of all, new moral norms were aimed at ensuring the proper quality of work and manufactured products by all members of the professional fraternity, then a number of norms determined the specifics of communication between people of the same profession, to create a favorable professional community.

1. Professional ethics and professional morality. Principles of professional ethics

The content of any professional ethics consists of the general and the specific. General principles of professional ethics, based on universal human moral standards, presuppose: a) professional solidarity (sometimes degenerating into corporatism); b) a special understanding of duty and honor; c) a special form of responsibility determined by the subject and type of activity. Particular principles arise from specific conditions, content and specifics of a particular profession and are expressed mainly in moral codes - requirements in relation to specialists.

Professional ethics, as a rule, concern only those types of professional activities in which there is various kinds of dependence of people on the actions of a professional, i.e. the consequences or processes of these actions have a special impact on the lives and destinies of other people or humanity. In this regard, traditional types of professional ethics are distinguished, such as pedagogical, medical, legal, scientist ethics, and relatively new ones, the emergence or actualization of which is associated with the increasing role of the “human factor” in this type of activity (engineering ethics) or the strengthening of its influence in society (journalistic ethics, bioethics)

Professional ethics is not a consequence of inequality in the degree of morality of different professional groups. But society places increased moral demands on certain types of professional activities. There are professional areas in which the labor process itself is based on high coordination of the actions of its participants, exacerbating the need for solidarity behavior. Particular attention is paid to the moral qualities of workers in those professions that are associated with the right to manage people’s lives, significant material assets, some professions from the service sector, transport, management, healthcare, education, etc. Here we are not talking about the actual level of morality, but about an obligation that, if left unrealized, may in any way interfere with the performance of professional functions.

A profession is a certain type of work activity that requires the necessary knowledge and skills acquired as a result of training and long-term work practice.

Professional types of ethics are those specific features of professional activity that are aimed directly at a person in certain conditions of his life and activity in society.

Medical ethics is based on traditional ideas about the humane purpose of the work of a physician, who must be guided in his actions by considerations of the physical and spiritual health of the patient, without taking into account difficulties, and in exceptional circumstances, his own safety. The history of medicine knows many cases when doctors tested the effect of a new drug on themselves, so as not to endanger the patient. The competence of medical ethics includes such complex problems as the boundaries of medical confidentiality, conditions for transplantation of vital organs, and others.

Pedagogical ethics is also saturated with humanistic aspects. It regulates, for example, the teacher’s behavior so that it strengthens his authority and ensures the unity of efforts of the teaching staff. At the same time, it is aimed at protecting the interests of children, establishes the limits of pedagogical solidarity, implements the principle of unity of respect for the student’s personality and demands on him, and raises the question of the moral trust of society in the teacher.

In the field of science, professional ethics requires upholding the truth and seeking to use scientific advances in the interests of humanity. It forms a readiness to correctly perceive criticism, requires a combination of scientific integrity with the personal honesty of the researcher, condemns opportunism, scolding, plagiarism, attempts to create a monopoly of a particular scientific school, reinforces a system of rules for conducting discussions, ways of consolidating scientific priority, and forms of expressing gratitude to colleagues.

Similar requirements are put forward by the professional ethics of a journalist, writer, artist, theater and film figure. Special moral codes also develop in those types of activities that are associated not with the professional division of labor, but with the use of some specific social functions (for example, in the military and police service, in the field of trade and services, in the field of sports).

We can talk about specific codes of conduct in relation to other professions only to the extent that they form moral relations between managers and subordinates, employees of different ranks and specialties. In this sense, we can distinguish engineer ethics, service or administrative ethics, and economic ethics (“business ethics”, “business ethics”).

Despite the universal nature of moral requirements and the presence of a unified labor morality of a class or society, there are also specific norms of behavior only for certain types of professional activities. The emergence and development of such codes represents one of the lines of moral progress of humanity, since they reflect the increasing value of the individual and affirm humanity in interpersonal relationships.

Consequently, the main purpose of professional ethics is that it ensures the implementation of general moral principles in the conditions of people’s professional activities and contributes to the successful implementation of professional duties. Professional ethics helps a specialist avoid mistakes and choose the most correct, highly moral line of behavior in various work situations.

The task of professional ethics is not to provide ready-made recipes for all occasions, but to teach a culture of moral thinking, to provide reliable guidelines for solving specific situations, to influence the formation of moral attitudes in a specialist in accordance with the specific requirements of the profession, to explain and evaluate behavioral stereotypes developed by legal practice in areas , not regulated by law.

Professional ethics is not a consequence of inequality in the degree of morality of different professional groups. It’s just that society has increased moral requirements for certain types of professional activities. Basically, these are professional areas in which the labor process itself requires coordination of the actions of all its participants. Particular attention is paid to the moral qualities of workers in that sphere that are associated with the right to manage people’s lives; here we are talking not only about the level of morality, but also, first of all, about the proper performance of their professional duties (these are professions from the service sector, transport, management, healthcare, education). The labor activity of people in these professions, more than any other, does not lend itself to preliminary regulation and does not fit within the framework of official instructions. It is inherently creative. The peculiarities of the work of these professional groups complicate moral relations and a new element is added to them: interaction with people - the objects of activity. This is where moral responsibility becomes crucial.

Society considers the moral qualities of an employee as one of the leading elements of his professional suitability. General moral norms must be specified in a person’s work activity, taking into account the specifics of his profession. Thus, professional morality must be considered in unity with the generally accepted system of morality. Violation of work ethics is accompanied by the destruction of general moral principles, and vice versa. An employee’s irresponsible attitude towards professional duties poses a danger to others, harms society, and can ultimately lead to the degradation of the individual himself.

Now in Russia there is a need to develop a new type of professional morality, which reflects the ideology of labor activity based on the development of market relations. We are talking, first of all, about the moral ideology of the new middle class, which makes up the overwhelming majority of the labor force in an economically developed society.

In modern society, an individual’s personal qualities begin with his business characteristics, attitude to work, and level of professional suitability. All this determines the exceptional relevance of the issues that make up the content of professional ethics. True professionalism is based on such moral standards as duty, honesty, demanding of oneself and one's colleagues, and responsibility for the results of one's work.

At the Russian conference of members of the interregional Association of Social Service Workers (May 22, 1994), a professional and ethical code of social workers was adopted, which formulated the moral principles of activity in the field of social services.

The principle of moral responsibility to the client:

Social service workers must treat clients with the humanistic orientation inherent in their profession;

The interests of clients are a priority for social service workers; the welfare of the client should be considered as a primary factor in any decision made by the service worker;

Social service workers must maintain the confidential nature of relationships with clients and take care of the non-disclosure of information received;

Social service workers must facilitate the client’s free, independent and conscious solution to his problems.

The principle of moral responsibility to society:

The activities of social service workers should contribute to the growth of the well-being of society;

Social service workers must respond to the request of any client, regardless of his lifestyle, origin, gender, sexual orientation, age or state of health.

The principle of moral responsibility to the profession and colleagues:

Social service workers are obliged to accumulate and deepen their knowledge and fully use it in their professional activities;

Social service workers must support and strengthen everything that helps them fulfill their purpose;

the social worker must strive to cooperate with his colleagues in the interests of his clients; relationships between social service workers should be built on mutual respect and trust

2. Ethics of business communication. Ethical issues in relationships with clients.

Business relationships are a complex, multifaceted process of developing contacts between people in the professional sphere. Its participants act in official capacities and are focused on achieving goals and specific tasks.
A specific feature of this process is regulation, i.e. subordination to established restrictions that are determined by national and cultural traditions and professional ethical principles. A prerequisite in the process of business relations is communication between people; I will consider the ethics of business relations using the example of communication, relationships, because With competent communication and the ability to win over your interlocutor, the final result also depends.

Ethics of business communication should be taken into account in its various manifestations:
In relations between an enterprise and the social environment, between enterprises, within one enterprise - between a manager and subordinates, between a subordinate and a manager, between people of the same status. There are specifics between the parties to one or another type of business communication. The task is to formulate principles of business communication that not only correspond to any type of business communication, but also do not contradict the general moral principles of human behavior. At the same time, they should serve as a reliable tool for coordinating the activities of people involved in business communication.

The general moral principle of human communication is contained in the categorical imperative of I. Kant: “Act in such a way that the maxim of your will can always also have the force of the principle of universal legislation.”
In relation to business communication, the basic ethical principle can be formulated as follows: in business communication, when deciding which values should be preferred in a given situation, act in such a way that the maxim of your will is compatible with the moral values of the other parties involved in the communication, and allows coordination of interests of all parties.

Thus, the basis of the ethics of business communication should be coordination, and, if possible, harmonization of interests. Naturally, if it is carried out by ethical means and in the name of morally justified goals. Therefore, business communication must be constantly checked by ethical reflection, justifying the motives for entering into it. At the same time, making an ethically correct choice and making an individual decision is often not an easy task. Market relations provide freedom of choice, but at the same time they increase the number of decision options and give rise to a set of moral dilemmas that await business people at every step in the process of their activities and communication.

Particular attention should be paid to the golden rule of communication ethics:
“Treat others the way you would like to be treated.” In its negative form, as formulated by Confucius, it reads: “What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others.” This rule also applies to business communication, but in relation to its individual types: “top-down” (manager-subordinate), “bottom-up” (subordinate-manager), “horizontally”
(employee-employee) requires specification.

Top-down business communication ethics.

In business communication “top-down”, i.e. In the relationship of a leader to a subordinate, the golden rule of ethics can be formulated as follows:

“Treat your subordinates the way you would want to be treated by your manager.” The art and success of business communication are largely determined by the ethical standards and principles that a manager uses in relation to his subordinates. By norms and principles we mean what behavior in the workplace is ethically acceptable and what is not. These norms relate, first of all, to how and on what basis orders are given in the management process, how the official discipline that determines business communication is expressed. Without observing the ethics of business communication between a manager and a subordinate, most people feel uncomfortable and morally unprotected in the team. The attitude of a manager to his subordinates influences the entire nature of business communication and largely determines its moral and psychological climate. It is at this level that moral standards and patterns of behavior are primarily formed. Let's note some of them:

Strive to transform your organization into a cohesive team with high moral standards of communication. Involve employees in the organization's goals. A person will only feel morally and psychologically comfortable when he identifies with the collective.
At the same time, everyone wants to remain an individual and wants to be respected for who they are.

If problems and difficulties associated with dishonesty arise, the manager should find out its reasons. If we are talking about ignorance, then we should not endlessly reproach the subordinate with his weaknesses and shortcomings. Think about what you can do to help him overcome them. Rely on the strengths of his personality.

If an employee does not follow your instructions, you need to let him know that you are aware of this, otherwise he may think that he tricked you.
Moreover, if the manager has not made an appropriate remark to the subordinate, then he is simply not fulfilling his duties and is acting unethically.

A remark to an employee must comply with ethical standards.
Ethics in business communication from the bottom up.

In business communication “bottom-up”, i.e. In relation to a subordinate to his superior, the general ethical rule of conduct can be formulated as follows: “Treat your superior as you would like to be treated by your subordinates.”

Knowing how you should approach and treat your leader is no less important than what moral requirements you should make of your subordinates. Without this, it is difficult to find a “common language” with both the boss and subordinates. Using certain ethical standards, you can attract a leader to your side, make him your ally, but you can also turn him against you, make him your ill-wisher.

Here are some essential ethics and principles that you can use when communicating with your manager.

Try to help the manager create a friendly atmosphere in the team and strengthen fair relationships. Remember that your manager needs this first.

Do not try to impose your point of view on the manager or command him. Make your suggestions or comments tactfully and politely. You cannot directly order him to do anything.

If any joyful or, on the contrary, unpleasant event is approaching or has already happened in the team, then the manager should be informed about it. In case of trouble, try to help ease the way out of this situation and offer your solution.

Ethics of business communication “horizontally”.

The general ethical principle of communication is “horizontal”, i.e. between colleagues (managers or ordinary members of the group), can be formulated as follows: “In business communication, treat your colleague the way you would like him to treat you.” If you find it difficult how to behave in a particular situation, put yourself in the shoes of your colleague.

In relation to fellow managers, it should be borne in mind that finding the right tone and acceptable standards of business communication with employees of equal status from other departments is a very difficult matter. Especially when it comes to communication and relationships within one enterprise. In this case, they are often rivals in the struggle for success and promotion.
At the same time, these are people who, together with you, belong to the general management team. In this case, participants in business communication should feel equal to each other.

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